从中国和西亚旧石器及道县人牙化石看中国现代人起源

中国古老型人类在中国现代人起源中的作用主要有三种假说:多地区进化说、取代说和2010年后兴盛的同化说。本文拟就中国13万年来的旧石器和西亚的旧石器以及湖南道县福岩洞人牙化石检验这些假说。考古学研究已经查明,在取代说或同化说所主张的最初居住于近东的现代人所惯用的石器技术属于第3模式。按常理推测,如果其后裔于大约6万年前到达中国而且完全或大部取代原住民,此时中国的石器应表现从第1模式到第3模式的巨变,因为在此时之前第1模式是中国旧石器的主流。表1显示中国不存在如某些遗传学论文所推测的从10万年前到5万年前的人类"断层",从13万年前以来中国旧石器主流仍旧是第1模式,没有发生按照取代说和同化说都必然会导致的在大约6万年前或更早时发生石器技术从第1模式到第3模式的巨变。2015年公布的道县12_8万年前人牙化石表明中国的现代人形态不是如DNA研究所主张的在6万年前才从境外移入的。这些都与多地区进化说的推论一致。     

东亚现代人来源的考古学思考:证据与解释

现代人的起源与扩散是当今古人类学界极具争议的问题。目前,"多地区进化"假说和非洲起源为主的"同化"假说是该争议的两大阵营。在"多地区进化"假说的基础上,立足中国的化石材料,吴新智提出了中国乃至东亚古人类"连续演化、附带杂交"的假说,认为中国的现代人主要由本地古老类型人类演化而来。本文从现代人扩散关键时段的考古材料出发,讨论氧同位素5～3阶段(大约13～3万年)考古材料在研究中国现代人形成中的作用和存在的挑战。首先,概括介绍现代人起源的主要假说和现代人扩散的假定路线——南线和北线的多重证据;其次,在此背景下,通过对中国境内考古材料的概括,分析不同石器技术可能反映的现代人来源;最后,简要探讨立足考古材料研究现代人起源与扩散的挑战。总体而言,氧同位素5～3阶段的旧石器考古材料支持中国北方南部和中国南方古人类的连续演化,同时也指示了非洲扩散而出的现代人人群自西北地区和南方地区进入中国的可能性。该模式支持中国古人类"连续演化、附带杂交"假说,然而我们也认识到中国现代人起源研究的考古基础仍十分薄弱,使用考古学材料研究现代人扩散的理论基础也需探讨。目前,细化、完善基础考古数据仍是中国旧石器时代考古学和古人类学学者努力的主要方向之一。如此,我们才能够更加有效地将人类化石与考古学证据融合,进而结合分子生物学的研究,更为全面地理解现代人的起源与演化。     

管窥新中国旧石器考古学的重大发展

本文对近５０年来中国旧石器考古学的主要成果作了简要的记述。依若干早更新世人类化石和旧石器文化地点发现的先后, 论述了人类在中国境内的历史悠久性, 随着不断的新发现而加深对这个问题的认识。在文中对中国旧石器工业的基本框架进行了探讨,提出北、南方主工业二元结构与多种区域性工业类型并存的看法,从中可以看到中国旧石器工业类型的多样性。此外,还讨论了如诸工业类型彼此关系和历史发展不平衡等问题, 同时对今后工作也提出了一点拙见     

中国旧石器文化的“西方元素”与早期人类文化进化格局

本文回顾和分析中国旧石器研究史上有关"西方元素"即西方旧石器文化标志性技术和工具问题的争论,得出三点结论:1)"西方元素"在中国旧石器文化中是与西方同类技术和工具大体同步出现的客观现象,两者无本质差别;2)和西方一样,中国旧石器的"西方元素"也有重叠与穿时性.这使得旧大陆两侧的旧石器文化连成一体,难分东西;3)基于以上事实,本文作者倾向于认为:迄今已知的旧大陆旧石器文化是过去200多万年间早期人类在进化过程中应对全球气候波动引起的生态环境变迁而反复进行的横贯大陆的双向迁移、交流与融合的结果.     

建立今人类学这门新学科

今人类学是与古人类学相对应的。古人类学这门学科已有多年的历史,近年来也有了很大的发展,可是至今还没有今人类学的学科,这是从现代古人类学的内容说到怎样来建立今人类学的新学科。 古人类学(Paleoanthropology)也叫人类古生物学(Human Paleontology),是研究人类起源和发展的科学。 人是灵长类中的一种。因此,要研究人类起源,就一定要涉及灵长类学,包括现生的灵长类和古灵长类或化石灵长类的知识。 人类的重要特征之一是能制造和使用工具来进行生产劳动。在人类发展的漫长过程中,人类使用的工具主要是石器,因而古人类学也必然要涉及石器、特别是旧石器。 研究人类进化的主要实物根据是人类化石和猿类化石,都是从地层中发掘出来的,因此要有地质学和地层学的一般知识,特别是较晚地质时期的新生代地质和地层。新生代     

中国人类化石的主要发现和理论探索(1922-2009)

文中简要回顾和总结近90年来中国古人类学的发展历程与脉络,重在梳理中国人类化石的发现、解剖特征、年代测定,以及建立在这些研究基础上所提出的主要理论学说,收尾于中国现代人类起源之论争.对中国古人类化石的形态学特征的比较研究导致为中国的人类进化提出新的假说-连续进化附带杂交说.这个假说同样获得古文化和古环境丰富信息的支持.     

数据科学在旧石器考古学中的应用

从考古学诞生之初,对抽象数据的解读与分析就一直伴随。对于旧石器考古学而言,“人工制品”成为了传达史前物质文化信息的主要载体,对人工制品中所提取的数据进行科学解读,成为了复原古代人类历史的关键步骤。数据科学在旧石器考古学中的应用具有三个主要因素,分别是数理统计学、计算机应用,以及旧石器考古学的基础数据与核心科学问题以及理论知识,即采用某种或多种逻辑将旧石器考古学领域的数据进行基于计算机平台的数理统计,并借助计算机语言对庞大的数据进行快速计算,从而帮助我们解释和重建史前人类社会。在目前的旧石器考古学领域,研究者们已经不再满足于对标本所进行的基础的描述性信息统计,对数据进行科学的处理并系统解读的诉求前所未有的强烈,这种诉求不断推动着学科的发展,深化了我们原本对史前社会的认识,甚至开拓出了新的研究领域,极大地推动了旧石器考古学的发展。本文就数据科学的概念、技术路线,以及在旧石器考古学中的应用历史与发展前景做详细介绍,希望通过系统性的梳理,使更多读者熟悉相关的研究手段与具体技术,使更多考古学者对数据科学的应用产生兴趣,从而应用于相关的项目研究中。     

基于生物适应进化原理论证生物进化的动力

文章从现有主流生物进化理论存在的问题入手, 以生物适应进化原理为认识基础, 讨论生物进化的动力, 以求对生物进化机制有一个新的认识。在薛定谔“生命赖负熵生存”观点的指导下, 提出了“负熵流”包括能量流、物质流和信息流, 以及负熵流是生命生存和发育的动力的观点。作者在原有生物适应进化原理基础上, 修改完善并提出了“DNA、RNA和蛋白质在环境作用下的生物适应进化调控系统”理论, 并根据系统发育是个体发育的“积分”的观点, 推论得出生物与环境的负熵差引起的负熵流也是生命进化的动力, 对生物进化机制作出了新的理解。基于这样的生物进化机制的认识, 提出了“进化是一个子系统在其上一等级系统中, 将自身全部或部分信息遗传给下一代子系统, 并在其适应上一等级系统过程中, 产生一些新质, 终止一些旧质, 从而在其上一等级系统中得以延续的变化过程”的概念, 并探讨了一些与进化有关的其他争议问题。     

探究早期现代人的南方扩散路线

本文从扩散时间、扩散路径、主要争论以及考古学证据等方面,对早期现代人南方扩散路线的研究现状进行梳理,对相关问题进行了探究。越来越多的证据显示,使用旧石器中期石器技术的早期现代人在晚更新世早期（MIS 5阶段）已经开始沿南方路线扩散,但学术界对于此次扩散的范围和影响程度仍存在争议。在距今约5万年以后,南方扩散路线上的早期现代人出现诸如使用赭石颜料、制作串珠和骨质工具、创作岩画艺术等行为,同时也独立发展出一些区域性适应行为。石器研究显示,南亚地区在5-3万年前逐渐出现了细石器技术及相关产品（细石叶、修背工具等）,而东南亚和大洋洲地区表现出以生产细小石片为主的权宜性石器技术体系,一些细小石片曾被用来加工有机质工具或作为复合型工具使用。中国南方地区紧邻东南亚和印度半岛,无论是从地理位置还是从生态环境来看,都可以纳入南方扩散路线的研究范围。建议从旧石器中期石制品组合和旧石器晚期细小石制品组合两方面入手,开展跨区域比较研究,为探索中国南方地区早期现代人的出现和演化提供重要考古学证据。     

中国林蛙与中华蟾蜍蝌蚪颅骨形态的系统进化比较

对无尾两栖动物系统进化的研究,主要是基于经典的形态学、现代分子生物学等技术。无尾两栖动物蝌蚪的进化与成体的进化可能是两个独立的过程,所以无尾两栖类蝌蚪形态及发育特征也可以作为研究系统进化的重要指征。本文对中国林蛙(Rana chensinensis)及中华蟾蜍(Bufo gargarizans)变态前蝌蚪的软骨性颅骨及鳃部骨骼进行形态学描述,基于幼体形态特征,进行系统建树。建树结果支持Orton将无尾两栖类蝌蚪划分为4种类型,认为最原始的类群为Ⅲ型蝌蚪,与Tihen的观点一致。新蛙亚目的中国林蛙和中华蟾蜍蝌蚪属Ⅳ型,是最进化的类群。     

Explaining the Imperfection of the Molecular Clock of Hominid Mitochondria

The molecular clock of mitochondrial DNA has been extensively used to date various genetic events. However, its substitution rate among humans appears to be higher than rates inferred from human-chimpanzee comparisons, limiting the potential of interspecies clock calibrations for intraspecific dating. It is not well understood how and why the substitution rate accelerates. We have analyzed a phylogenetic tree of 3057 publicly available human mitochondrial DNA coding region sequences for changes in the ratios of mutations belonging to different functional classes. The proportion of non-synonymous and RNA genes substitutions has reduced over hundreds of thousands of years. The highest mutation ratios corresponding to fast acceleration in the apparent substitution rate of the coding sequence have occurred after the end of the Last Ice Age. We recalibrate the molecular clock of human mtDNA as 7990 years per synonymous mutation over the mitochondrial genome. However, the distribution of substitutions at synonymous sites in human data significantly departs from a model assuming a single rate parameter and implies at least 3 different subclasses of sites. Neutral model with 3 synonymous substitution rates can explain most, if not all, of the apparent molecular clock difference between the intra- and interspecies levels. Our findings imply the sluggishness of purifying selection in removing the slightly deleterious mutations from the human as well as the Neandertal and chimpanzee populations. However, for humans, the weakness of purifying selection has been further exacerbated by the population expansions associated with the out-of Africa migration and the end of the Last Ice Age.     

Origins of the Iberomaurusian in NW Africa: New AMS radiocarbon dating of the Middle and Later Stone Age deposits at Taforalt Cave,Morocco

Recent genetic studies based on the distribution of mtDNA of haplogroup U6 have led to subtly different theories regarding the arrival of modern human populations in North Africa. One proposes that groups of the proto-U6 lineage spread from the Near East to North Africa around 40–45 ka (thousands of years ago), followed by some degree of regional continuity. Another envisages a westward human migration from the Near East, followed by further demographic expansion at ∼22 ka centred on the Maghreb and associated with a microlithic bladelet culture known as the Iberomaurusian. In evaluating these theories, we report on the results of new work on the Middle (MSA) and Later Stone (LSA) Age deposits at Taforalt Cave in Morocco. We present 54 AMS radiocarbon dates on bone and charcoals from a sequence of late MSA and LSA occupation levels of the cave. Using Bayesian modelling we show that an MSA non-Levallois flake industry was present until ∼24.5 ka Cal BP (calibrated years before present), followed by a gap in occupation and the subsequent appearance of an LSA Iberomaurusian industry from at least 21,160 Cal BP. The new dating offers fresh light on theories of continuity versus replacement of populations as presented by the genetic evidence. We examine the implications of these data for interpreting the first appearance of the LSA in the Maghreb and providing comparisons with other dated early blade and bladelet industries in North Africa.     

Mitochondrial DNA signals of late glacial recolonization of Europe from near eastern refugia

Human populations, along with those of many other species, are thought to have contracted into a number of refuge areas at the height of the last Ice Age. European populations are believed to be, to a large extent, the descendants of the inhabitants of these refugia, and some extant mtDNA lineages can be traced to refugia in Franco-Cantabria (haplogroups H1, H3, V, and U5b1), the Italian Peninsula (U5b3), and the East European Plain (U4 and U5a). Parts of the Near East, such as the Levant, were also continuously inhabited throughout the Last Glacial Maximum, but unlike western and eastern Europe, no archaeological or genetic evidence for Late Glacial expansions into Europe from the Near East has hitherto been discovered. Here we report, on the basis of an enlarged whole-genome mitochondrial database, that a substantial, perhaps predominant, signal from mitochondrial haplogroups J and T, previously thought to have spread primarily from the Near East into Europe with the Neolithic population, may in fact reflect dispersals during the Late Glacial period, ～19-12 thousand years (ka) ago.     

Increased resolution of Y chromosome haplogroup T defines relationships among populations of the Near East, Europe, and Africa

Increasing phylogenetic resolution of the Y chromosome haplogroup tree has led to finer temporal and spatial resolution for studies of human migration. Haplogroup T, initially known as K2 and defined by mutation M70, is found at variable frequencies across West Asia, Africa, and Europe. While several SNPs were recently discovered that extended the length of the branch leading to haplogroup T, only two SNPs are known to mark internal branches of haplogroup T. This low level of phylogenetic resolution has hindered studies of the origin and dispersal of this interesting haplogroup, which is found in Near Eastern non-Jewish populations, Jewish populations from several communities, and in the patrilineage of President Thomas Jefferson. Here we map 10 new SNPs that, together with the previously known SNPs, mark 11 lineages and two large subclades (T1a and T1b) of haplogroup T. We also report a new SNP that links haplogroups T and L within the major framework of Y chromosome evolution. Estimates of the timing of the branching events within haplogroup T, along with a comprehensive geographic survey of the major T subclades, suggest that this haplogroup began to diversify in the Near East -25 kya. Our survey also points to a complex history of dispersal of this rare and informative haplogroup within the Near East and from the Near East to Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. The presence of T1a2 chromosomes in Near Eastern Jewish and non-Jewish populations may reflect early exiles between the ancient lands of Israel and Babylon. The presence of different subclades of T chromosomes in Europe may be explained by both the spread of Neolithic farmers and the later dispersal of Jews from the Near East. Finally, the moderately high frequency (-18%) of T1b* chromosomes in the Lemba of southern Africa supports the hypothesis of a Near Eastern, but not necessarily a Jewish, origin for their paternal line.     

从技术组织论视角阐释中国古人类石器技术的多样性

石器的演化历史与早期人类技术活动的投入成本密切相关,也在一定程度上受制于可获取的原料与利用的动植物资源。克拉克有关早期人类的石器技术演化的5种技术模式,在解释旧大陆古人类技术演化具有深远的影响。然而,生活在东亚特别是中国北方地区的古人类,石制品文化面貌在约40 ka BP一直以石核-石片技术体系占据主导地位。学术界一般以中国本土旧石器文化传统根深蒂固,与西方文化交流有限为原因,解释这种石器技术发展的不平衡现象。本文以石制品生产技术组织的研究理念为出发点,强调精致加工代表人群的高投入技术与行为,在中国境内以模式2、3为代表,其产品可在一定程度上作为文化标识反映了外来人群的扩散,体现了东、西方文化有限交流;而权宜技术则多为低投入的技术与行为活动,以石核-石片技术体系为代表,随时间推移不断继承发展。同时,石核-石片技术体系在中国盛行的现象,表明本地古人类对一种比较成功的适应策略的坚持和继承,分布区域局限、内在技术变异程度相对较低的模式2、3技术,更有可能是欧亚大陆西侧和非洲规模有限的人群扩散或技术传播的结果。     

Paléolithique supérieur et Mésolithique en Méditerranée : cadre culturel

The origin of the Upper Palaeolithic around the Mediterranean was the result of the local evolution, particularly in the Near East and in the Lower Nile basin, and of the migration from this zone to South-Eastern and Central Europe. The Initial Upper Palaeolithic in the Near East belt was the effect of local evolution from the industries based on Levallois concept to the industries which developed leptolithic blade technologies. This evolution is well registered in multi-layer sites in the Syro-Palestinian belt (Emirian/Ahmarian), which was the starting point of the diffusion of these “transitional” industries in South-Eastern and Central Europe. This diffusion could be identified with the migration of first anatomically Modern Humans. The Early Upper Palaeolithic in Europe — dated to the second half of the Interpleniglacial — was, at least partially, based on these “transitional” industries and manifested by the appearance of the Aurignacian, contrasted with local cultures such as the Uluzzian in Mediterranean Europe. During whole the Interpleniglacial Europe was separated from Northern Africa dominated by local evolution of Middle Palaeolithic (Middle Stone Age) cultures (mostly expressed by the Aterian), and by specific “transitional” industries on the southern Mediterranean coast (Early Dabbian) and in the Lower Nile basin. The Last Glacial Maximum and the corresponding sea level recession opened new possibilities of contacts between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula in both directions (Aterian-Solutrean and Gravettian-Early Iberomaurusian), which are still difficult to be proved before new chronostratigraphic correlations are made. At the same time we register links between south-eastern Europe and western Anatolia; the real border between Near Eastern and European Mediterranean cultural zones was marked, in the Late Glacial, by the Taurus chain. During the Late Glacial the cultural separation between Europe and Africa was particularly marked. Only in the Aegean basin the first sea navigation facilitated contacts which become widespread as late as in the Early Holocene with neolithization trough maritime contacts.     

Out of southern East Asia: the natural history of domestic dogs across the world

The origin and evolution of the domestic dog remains a controversial question for the scientific community, with basic aspects such as the place and date of origin, and the number of times dogs were domesticated, open to dispute. Using whole genome sequences from a total of 58 canids (12 gray wolves, 27 primitive dogs from Asia and Africa, and a collection of 19 diverse breeds from across the world), we find that dogs from southern East Asia have significantly higher genetic diversity compared to other populations, and are the most basal group relating to gray wolves, indicating an ancient origin of domestic dogs in southern East Asia 33 000 years ago. Around 15 000 years ago, a subset of ancestral dogs started migrating to the Middle East, Africa and Europe, arriving in Europe at about 10 000 years ago. One of the out of Asia lineages also migrated back to the east, creating a series of admixed populations with the endemic Asian lineages in northern China before migrating to the New World. For the first time, our study unravels an extraordinary journey that the domestic dog has traveled on earth.     

Speculations on the origins of Plasmodium vivax malaria

It is likely that Plasmodium vivax diverged approximately 2 million years ago from a group of malaria parasites which are now endemic in monkeys and apes in southern Asia. In those times, primates were spread throughout most of Eurasia and Africa, indicating an Old World location, but nothing more precise, for the place of divergence of P. vivax. From approximately 1 million years ago, the Ice Ages would have isolated human malaria, including P. vivax, into humid temperate or warm climate refuges around the Mediterranean, in sub-Saharan Africa and in south and east Asia. As there appears to be no record of humans in south and east Asia from 100,000 to 60,000 years ago, they might not have passed on their parasites, including P. vivax, to modern humans entering the region after this time. Today, all P. vivax might be descended from parasites which infected human populations in the Mediterranean region and in sub-Saharan Africa during the last Ice Age, between 100,000 and 20,000 years ago. Evidence for the latter is provided by the presence of very high frequency RBC Duffy negativity in sub-Saharan Africa.     

晋西南旧石器考古学研究现状及其展望

晋西南古称河东,位于汾渭地堑中部,包括临汾盆地、运城盆地以及中条山南麓黄河沿岸。这里自古就是中华民族文明重要发祥地,也是研究人类起源、发展、演化的重要地区。20世纪50年代以来,考古工作者在山西地堑发现了300余处旧石器时代遗址和地点。这些发现业已证明晋西南的临汾、运城以及中条山南麓黄河沿岸,从早更新世初期直到更新世结束一直有人类在这片土地上繁衍生息。其中西侯度遗址、匼河遗址群、丁村遗址群、下川遗址群、柿子滩遗址群,代表了东亚旧石器时代人类200万年以来从能人→直立人→早期智人→晚期智人各个不同发展阶段一个完整的演化历程。因此,这里成为中国大陆一个非常重要的远古人类演化场。本文试图通过对这一区域旧石器考古的回顾,找出我们工作中的不足以及需要努力的方向,并向本地区考古学研究的开拓者贾兰坡、王建、王择义等老一辈考古学家致敬。