Development of an anatomically based whole‐body musculoskeletal model of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)

We constructed a three‐dimensional whole‐body musculoskeletal model of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) based on computed tomography and dissection of a cadaver. The skeleton was modeled as a chain of 20 bone segments connected by joints. Joint centers and rotational axes were estimated by joint morphology based on joint surface approximation using a quadric function. The path of each muscle was defined by a line segment connecting origin to insertion through an intermediary point if necessary. Mass and fascicle length of each were systematically recorded to calculate physiological cross‐sectional area to estimate the capacity of each muscle to generate force. Using this anatomically accurate model, muscle moment arms and force vectors generated by individual limb muscles at the foot and hand were calculated to computationally predict muscle functions. Furthermore, three‐dimensional whole‐body musculoskeletal kinematics of the Japanese macaque was reconstructed from ordinary video sequences based on this model and a model‐based matching technique. The results showed that the proposed model can successfully reconstruct and visualize anatomically reasonable, natural musculoskeletal motion of the Japanese macaque during quadrupedal/bipedal locomotion, demonstrating the validity and efficacy of the constructed musculoskeletal model. The present biologically relevant model may serve as a useful tool for comprehensive understanding of the design principles of the musculoskeletal system and the control mechanisms for locomotion in the Japanese macaque and other primates. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A technical method using musculoskeletal model to analyse dynamic properties of muscles during human movement

An effective way to avoid invading or injuring the subjects is to use the musculoskeletal model when studying the dynamic properties of muscles in vivo. So, we put forward a joint coordinate system-based method, which mainly focuses on the coordinate's transformation of corresponding muscle attachment points, respectively, in the model and the subject in order to reproduce the movement of the subject on the model. As muscle moment arm is usually used to evaluate the dynamic properties of muscles, the moment arms in elbow flexion for each of the major muscles crossing the elbow in 50 healthy subjects (25 males and 25 females), ranging in height from 1.50 to 1.80 m (mean 1.6542 m) are calculated and compared with the measured data obtained from anatomical studies reported in the literature. The trends of the value basically coincide with each other. So, this novel method can be valid.     

A musculoskeletal model of the hand and wrist: model definition and evaluation

Abstract

To improve our understanding on the neuromechanics of finger movements, a comprehensive musculoskeletal model is needed. The aim of this study was to build a musculoskeletal model of the hand and wrist, based on one consistent data set of the relevant anatomical parameters. We built and tested a model including the hand and wrist segments, as well as the muscles of the forearm and hand in OpenSim. In total, the model comprises 19 segments (with the carpal bones modeled as one segment) with 23 degrees of freedom and 43 muscles. All required anatomical input data, including bone masses and inertias, joint axis positions and orientations as well as muscle morphological parameters (i.e. PCSA, mass, optimal fiber length and tendon length) were obtained from one cadaver of which the data set was recently published. Model validity was investigated by first comparing computed muscle moment arms at the index finger metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint and wrist joint to published reference values. Secondly, the muscle forces during pinching were computed using static optimization and compared to previously measured intraoperative reference values. Computed and measured moment arms of muscles at both index MCP and wrist showed high correlation coefficients (r?=?0.88 averaged across all muscles) and modest root mean square deviation (RMSD?=?23% averaged across all muscles). Computed extrinsic flexor forces of the index finger during index pinch task were within one standard deviation of previously measured in-vivo tendon forces. These results provide an indication of model validity for use in estimating muscle forces during static tasks.     

Force feasible set prediction with artificial neural network and musculoskeletal model

Abstract

Developing tools to predict the force capabilities of the human limbs through the Force Feasible Set (FFS) may be of great interest for robotic assisted rehabilitation and digital human modelling for ergonomics. Indeed, it could help to refine rehabilitation programs for active participation during exercise therapy and to prevent musculoskeletal disorders. In this framework, the purpose of this study is to use artificial neural networks (ANN) to predict the FFS of the upper-limb based on joint centre Cartesian positions and anthropometric data. Seventeen right upper-limb musculoskeletal models based on individual anthropometric data are created. For each musculoskeletal model, the FFS is computed for 8428 different postures. For any combination of force direction and joint positions, ANNs can predict the FFS with high values of coefficient of determination (R²?>?0.89) between the true and predicted data.     

Bone modeling response to voluntary exercise in the hindlimb of mice

The functional adaptation of juvenile mammalian limb bone to mechanical loading is necessary to maintain bone strength. Diaphyseal size and shape are modified during growth through the process of bone modeling. Although bone modeling is a well-documented response to increased mechanical stress on growing diaphyseal bone, the effect of proximodistal location on bone modeling remains unclear. Distal limb elements in cursorial mammals are longer and thinner, most likely to conserve energy during locomotion because they require less energy to move. Therefore, distal elements are hypothesized to experience greater mechanical loading during locomotion and may be expected to exhibit a greater modeling response to exercise. In this study, histomorphometric comparisons are made between femora and tibiae of mice treated with voluntary exercise and a control group (N = 20). We find that femora of exercised mice exhibit both greater bone growth rates and growth areas than do controls (P < 0.05). The femora of exercised mice also have significantly greater cortical area, bending rigidity, and torsional rigidity (P < 0.05), although bending and torsional rigidity are comparable when standardized by bone length. Histomorphometric and cross-section geometric properties of the tibial midshaft of exercised and control mice did not differ significantly, although tibial length was significantly greater in exercised mice (P < 0.05). Femora of exercised mice were able to adapt to increased mechanical loading through increases in compressive, bending, and torsional rigidity. No such adaptations were found in the tibia. It is unclear if this is a biomechanical adaptation to greater stress in proximal elements or if distal elements are ontogenetically constrained in a tradeoff of bone strength of distal elements for bioenergetic efficiency during locomotion.     

Forward dynamic simulation of bipedal walking in the Japanese macaque: investigation of causal relationships among limb kinematics, speed, and energetics of bipedal locomotion in a nonhuman primate

Japanese macaques that have been trained for monkey performances exhibit a remarkable ability to walk bipedally. In this study, we dynamically reconstructed bipedal walking of the Japanese macaque to investigate causal relationships among limb kinematics, speed, and energetics, with a view to understanding the mechanisms underlying the evolution of human bipedalism. We constructed a two-dimensional macaque musculoskeletal model consisting of nine rigid links and eight principal muscles. To generate locomotion, we used a trajectory-tracking control law, the reference trajectories of which were obtained experimentally. Using this framework, we evaluated the effects of changes in cycle duration and gait kinematics on locomotor efficiency. The energetic cost of locomotion was estimated based on the calculation of mechanical energy generated by muscles. Our results demonstrated that the mass-specific metabolic cost of transport decreased as speed increased in bipedal walking of the Japanese macaque. Furthermore, the cost of transport in bipedal walking was reduced when vertical displacement of the hip joint was virtually modified in the simulation to be more humanlike. Human vertical fluctuations in the body's center of mass actually contributed to energy savings via an inverted pendulum mechanism.     

A muscle-path-plane method for representing muscle contraction during joint movement

Traditional muscle paths (the straight-line model and the viapoint-line model) emphasise either the mechanical properties that arouse joint movement or the morphological characteristics of the muscles. To consider both the factors, a muscle-path-plane (MPP) method is introduced to model the paths of muscles during joint movement. This method is based on the premise that there is a MPP, constructed by origin, insertion and MPP control point, which represents the major direction of the muscle contraction for an arbitrary joint configuration at any time. Then, we can calculate the functions and the lengths of the muscle paths during instantaneous joint movement in MPP by mathematical approaches. Taking the triceps brachii as an example, the lengths of its paths during elbow flexion are calculated and compared with the relative studies reported in the literature. It is concluded that this method can provide an insight into the simulation of the muscle contraction.     

A method to determine whether a musculoskeletal model can resist arbitrary external loadings within a prescribed range

Computational models of the musculoskeletal system are prone to design errors. It is possible to create a model that cannot satisfy equilibrium conditions for a set of external loading conditions. A model is ‘loadable’ if there exists a set of muscle forces that can resist an arbitrary applied force within a prescribed range. In this study, a novel mathematical method is introduced to determine whether models are loadable. In addition, an idealised musculoskeletal model is presented in order to develop the theory behind the mathematical method. The method uses the simplex algorithm to determine feasibility of the linear programming problem and can determine loadability for an arbitrary, continuous range of external forces. The method was applied to a three-dimensional model of the shoulder and correctly determined loadability for a range of externally applied forces.     

Human upper-limb force capacities evaluation with robotic models for ergonomic applications: effect of elbow flexion

The aim of this study was to apply models derived from the robotics field to evaluate the human upper-limb force generation capacity. Four models were compared: the force ellipsoid (FE) and force polytope (FP) based on unit joint torques and the scaled FE (SFE) and scaled FP (SFP) based on maximum isometric joint torques. The four models were assessed from four upper-limb postures with varying elbow flexion (40°, 60°, 80° and 100°) measured by an optoelectronic system and their corresponding isometric joint torques. Ten subjects were recruited. Three specific ellipsoids and polytopes parameters were compared: isotropy, principal force orientation and volume. Isotropy showed that the ellipsoids and polytopes were elongated. The angle between the two ellipsoids main axis and the two polytopes remained low but increased with the elbow flexion. The FE and FP volumes increased and those of SFE and SFP decreased with the elbow flexion. The interest and limits of such models are discussed in the framework of ergonomics and rehabilitation.     

Modeling of Muscle Force at Varied Joint Angles of the Human Arm and Estimation of Gripping Force Using Surface EMG

This paper aims to determine the force required for holding the objects by human hand. A static analysis is performed on mathematical models to obtain holding force considering lower arm as class three lever and by varying the joint angles. Three mathematical models are discussed to quantify the force required to hold any object, for different weight of the object and the joint angles. A noninvasive experimentation using surface electromyogram was performed to determine the forces required by human hand for the same objects used in the mathematical modeling. Twenty-one male subjects participated in this test and were asked to hold different objects. EMG signals were recorded and converted into grip force in Newton. The EMG to Force conversion was accomplished by the equation derived from the Hills model. The experimentation revealed that subjects in the age group of 20-50 years generated more grip force as compared to those above the age of fifty years. The values of muscle force obtained from the experimentation are optimum values which depend upon the nature of the gripping habits subjects are used to. Whereas, in the case of mathematical models yielded maximum force required to sustain the weight placed on the hand considering it as a mechanical system. The study revealed an average gripping force of 85 Newton required to hold the objects weighing between 0.015 kg to 1.18 kg used in the experimentation. The mathematical model resulted in an average of 162 Newton muscle force to hold the object having similar weights.     

Critical analysis of musculoskeletal modelling complexity in multibody biomechanical models of the upper limb

The inverse dynamics technique applied to musculoskeletal models, and supported by optimisation techniques, is used extensively to estimate muscle and joint reaction forces. However, the solutions of the redundant muscle force sharing problem are sensitive to the detail and modelling assumptions of the models used. This study presents four alternative biomechanical models of the upper limb with different levels of discretisation of muscles by bundles and muscle paths, and their consequences on the estimation of the muscle and joint reaction forces. The muscle force sharing problem is solved for the motions of abduction and anterior flexion, acquired using video imaging, through the minimisation of an objective function describing muscle metabolic energy consumption. While looking for the optimal solution, not only the equations of motion are satisfied but also the stability of the glenohumeral and scapulothoracic joints is preserved. The results show that a lower level of muscle discretisation provides worse estimations regarding the muscle forces. Moreover, the poor discretisation of muscles relevant to the joint in analysis limits the applicability of the biomechanical model. In this study, the biomechanical model of the upper limb describing the infraspinatus by a single bundle could not solve the complete motion of anterior flexion. Despite the small differences in the magnitude of the forces predicted by the biomechanical models with more complex muscular systems, in general, there are no significant variations in the muscular activity of equivalent muscles.     

A comparative study of muscle force estimates using Huxley's and Hill's muscle model

Determination of muscle forces in individual muscles is often essential to assess optimal performance of human motion. Inverse dynamic methods based on the kinematics of the given motion and on the use of optimisation approach are the most widely used for muscle force estimation. The aim of this study was to estimate how the choice of muscle model influences predicted muscle forces. Huxley's (1957, Prog Biophys Biop Chem. 7: 255–318) and Hill's (1938, Proc R Soc B. 126: 136–195) muscle models were used for determination of muscle forces of two antagonistic muscles of the lower extremity during cycling. Huxley's model is a complex model that couples biochemical and physical processes with the microstructure of the muscle whereas the Hill's model is a phenomenological model. Muscle forces predicted by both models are within the same range. Huxley's model predicts more realistic patterns of muscle activation but it is computationally more demanding. Therefore, if the overall muscle forces are to be assessed, it is reasonable to use a simpler implementation based on Hill's model.     

Sensitivity of intervertebral joint forces to center of rotation location and trends along its migration path

Translational vertebral motion during functional tasks manifests itself in dynamic loci for center of rotation (COR). A shift of COR affects moment arms of muscles and ligaments; consequently, muscle and joint forces are altered. Based on posture- and level-specific trends of COR migration revealed by in vivo dynamic radiography during functional activities, it was postulated that the instantaneous COR location for a particular joint is optimized in order to minimize the joint reaction forces. A musculoskeletal multi-body model was employed to investigate the hypotheses that (1) a posterior COR in upright standing and (2) an anterior COR in forward flexed posture leads to optimized lumbar joint loads. Moreover, it was hypothesized that (3) lower lumbar levels benefit from a more superiorly located COR.The COR in the model was varied from its initial position in posterior-anterior and inferior-superior direction up to ±6 mm in steps of 2 mm. Movement from upright standing to 45° forward bending and backwards was simulated for all configurations. Joint reaction forces were computed at levels L2L3 to L5S1. Results clearly confirmed hypotheses (1) and (2) and provided evidence for the validity of hypothesis (3), hence offering a biomechanical rationale behind the migration paths of CORs observed during functional flexion/extension movement. Average sensitivity of joint force magnitudes to an anterior shift of COR was +6 N/mm in upright and −21 N/mm in 30° forward flexed posture, while sensitivity to a superior shift in upright standing was +7 N/mm and −8 N/mm in 30° flexion. The relation between COR loci and joint loading in upright and flexed postures could be mainly attributed to altered muscle moment arms and consequences on muscle exertion. These findings are considered relevant for the interpretation of COR migration data, the development of numerical models, and could have an implication on clinical diagnosis and treatment or the development of spinal implants.     

Benchmarking of dynamic simulation predictions in two software platforms using an upper limb musculoskeletal model

Several opensource or commercially available software platforms are widely used to develop dynamic simulations of movement. While computational approaches are conceptually similar across platforms, technical differences in implementation may influence output. We present a new upper limb dynamic model as a tool to evaluate potential differences in predictive behavior between platforms. We evaluated to what extent differences in technical implementations in popular simulation software environments result in differences in kinematic predictions for single and multijoint movements using EMG- and optimization-based approaches for deriving control signals. We illustrate the benchmarking comparison using SIMM–Dynamics Pipeline–SD/Fast and OpenSim platforms. The most substantial divergence results from differences in muscle model and actuator paths. This model is a valuable resource and is available for download by other researchers. The model, data, and simulation results presented here can be used by future researchers to benchmark other software platforms and software upgrades for these two platforms.     

“中国力学虚拟人”研究及应用

该课题利用"中国可视化人"项目研究成果和志愿者的相关数据,建立了人体全身和部分细分部位的骨肌系统生物力学仿真模型。模型可以按真实对象进行改造,并可植入人工关节等植入物。在所建实验平台中,通过运动捕捉系统测得的或人为设计的运动数据,模型可以仿真人体各种行为运动,进行动力学分析,计算关节力、关节力矩和肌肉力。成果集成在所开发的软件CMVHuman1.0中,完成软件注册登记,并建立了产业化服务体系。成果已在临床医学和植入物设计中获得广泛应用,并扩大到体育科学、人体工程学、航空、航天和虚拟士兵等领域。     

On the inference of function from structure using biomechanical modelling and simulation of extinct organisms

Biomechanical modelling and simulation techniques offer some hope for unravelling the complex inter-relationships of structure and function perhaps even for extinct organisms, but have their limitations owing to this complexity and the many unknown parameters for fossil taxa. Validation and sensitivity analysis are two indispensable approaches for quantifying the accuracy and reliability of such models or simulations. But there are other subtleties in biomechanical modelling that include investigator judgements about the level of simplicity versus complexity in model design or how uncertainty and subjectivity are dealt with. Furthermore, investigator attitudes toward models encompass a broad spectrum between extreme credulity and nihilism, influencing how modelling is conducted and perceived. Fundamentally, more data and more testing of methodology are required for the field to mature and build confidence in its inferences.     

Sensitivity of a subject-specific musculoskeletal model to the uncertainties on the joint axes location

Subject-specific musculoskeletal models have become key tools in the clinical decision-making process. However, the sensitivity of the calculated solution to the unavoidable errors committed while deriving the model parameters from the available information is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to calculate the sensitivity of all the kinematics and kinetics variables to the inter-examiner uncertainty in the identification of the lower limb joint models. The study was based on the computer tomography of the entire lower-limb from a single donor and the motion capture from a body-matched volunteer. The hip, the knee and the ankle joint models were defined following the International Society of Biomechanics recommendations. Using a software interface, five expert anatomists identified on the donor's images the necessary bony locations five times with a three-day time interval. A detailed subject-specific musculoskeletal model was taken from an earlier study, and re-formulated to define the joint axes by inputting the necessary bony locations. Gait simulations were run using OpenSim within a Monte Carlo stochastic scheme, where the locations of the bony landmarks were varied randomly according to the estimated distributions. Trends for the joint angles, moments, and the muscle and joint forces did not substantially change after parameter perturbations. The highest variations were as follows: (a) 11° calculated for the hip rotation angle, (b) 1% BW × H calculated for the knee moment and (c) 0.33 BW calculated for the ankle plantarflexor muscles and the ankle joint forces. In conclusion, the identification of the joint axes from clinical images is a robust procedure for human movement modelling and simulation.     

Dermal fibroblasts contribute to multiple tissues in the accessory limb model

The accessory limb model has become an alternative model for performing investigations of limb regeneration in an amputated limb. In the accessory limb model, a complete patterned limb can be induced as a result of an interaction between the wound epithelium, a nerve and dermal fibroblasts in the skin. Studies should therefore focus on examining these tissues. To date, however, a study of cellular contributions in the accessory limb model has not been reported. By using green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic axolotl tissues, we can trace cell fate at the tissue level. Therefore, in the present study, we transgrafted GFP skin onto the limb of a non‐GFP host and induced an accessory limb to investigate cellular contributions. Previous studies of cell contribution to amputation‐induced blastemas have demonstrated that dermal cells are the progenitors of many of the early blastema cells, and that these cells contribute to regeneration of the connective tissues, including cartilage. In the present study, we have determined that this same population of progenitor cells responds to signaling from the nerve and wound epithelium in the absence of limb amputation to form an ectopic blastema and regenerate the connective tissues of an ectopic limb. Blastema cells from dermal fibroblasts, however, did not differentiate into either muscle or neural cells, and we conclude that dermal fibroblasts are dedifferentiated along its developmental lineage.