Understanding in vivo benzenoid metabolism in petunia petal tissue

In vivo stable isotope labeling and computer-assisted metabolic flux analysis were used to investigate the metabolic pathways in petunia (Petunia hybrida) cv Mitchell leading from Phe to benzenoid compounds, a process that requires the shortening of the side chain by a C(2) unit. Deuterium-labeled Phe ((2)H(5)-Phe) was supplied to excised petunia petals. The intracellular pools of benzenoid/phenylpropanoid-related compounds (intermediates and end products) as well as volatile end products within the floral bouquet were analyzed for pool sizes and labeling kinetics by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Modeling of the benzenoid network revealed that both the CoA-dependent, beta-oxidative and CoA-independent, non-beta-oxidative pathways contribute to the formation of benzenoid compounds in petunia flowers. The flux through the CoA-independent, non-beta-oxidative pathway with benzaldehyde as a key intermediate was estimated to be about 2 times higher than the flux through the CoA-dependent, beta-oxidative pathway. Modeling of (2)H(5)-Phe labeling data predicted that in addition to benzaldehyde, benzylbenzoate is an intermediate between l-Phe and benzoic acid. Benzylbenzoate is the result of benzoylation of benzyl alcohol, for which activity was detected in petunia petals. A cDNA encoding a benzoyl-CoA:benzyl alcohol/phenylethanol benzoyltransferase was isolated from petunia cv Mitchell using a functional genomic approach. Biochemical characterization of a purified recombinant benzoyl-CoA:benzyl alcohol/phenylethanol benzoyltransferase protein showed that it can produce benzylbenzoate and phenylethyl benzoate, both present in petunia corollas, with similar catalytic efficiencies.     

Enhanced formation of aromatic amino acids increases fragrance without affecting flower longevity or pigmentation in Petunia × hybrida

Purple Petunia × hybrida V26 plants accumulate fragrant benzenoid‐phenylpropanoid molecules and anthocyanin pigments in their petals. These specialized metabolites are synthesized mainly from the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine. Here, we studied the profile of secondary metabolites of petunia plants, expressing a feedback‐insensitive bacterial form of 3‐deoxy‐di‐arabino‐heptulosonate 7‐phosphate synthase enzyme (AroG*) of the shikimate pathway, as a tool to stimulate the conversion of primary to secondary metabolism via the aromatic amino acids. We focused on specialized metabolites contributing to flower showy traits. The presence of AroG* protein led to increased aromatic amino acid levels in the leaves and high phenylalanine levels in the petals. In addition, the AroG* petals accumulated significantly higher levels of fragrant benzenoid‐phenylpropanoid volatiles, without affecting the flowers' lifetime. In contrast, AroG* abundance had no effect on flavonoids and anthocyanins levels. The metabolic profile of all five AroG* lines was comparable, even though two lines produced the transgene in the leaves, but not in the petals. This implies that phenylalanine produced in leaves can be transported through the stem to the flowers and serve as a precursor for formation of fragrant metabolites. Dipping cut petunia stems in labelled phenylalanine solution resulted in production of labelled fragrant volatiles in the flowers. This study emphasizes further the potential of this metabolic engineering approach to stimulate the production of specialized metabolites and enhance the quality of various plant organs. Furthermore, transformation of vegetative tissues with AroG* is sufficient for induced production of specialized metabolites in organs such as the flowers.     

Suppression of cell expansion by ectopic expression of the Arabidopsis SUPERMAN gene in transgenic petunia and tobacco

Molecular and genetic analyses have shown that the Arabidopsis thaliana gene SUPERMAN (SUP) has at least two functions in Arabidopsis flower development. SUP is necessary to control the correct distribution of cells with either a stamen or carpel fate, and is essential for proper outgrowth of the ovule outer integument. Both these functions indicate a role for SUP in cell proliferation. To study the function of the Arabidopsis SUP gene in more detail, we over-expressed the SUP gene in petunia and tobacco in a tissue-specific manner. The petunia FLORAL BINDING PROTEIN 1 (FBP1) gene promoter was used to restrict the expression of SUP to petals and stamens. The development of petals and stamens was severely affected in both petunia and tobacco plants over-expressing SUP. Petals remained small and did not unfold, resulting in closed flowers. Stamen filaments were thin and very short. Detailed analysis of these floral organs from the petunia transformants showed that cell expansion was dramatically reduced without affecting cell division. These results reveal a novel activity for SUP as a regulator of cell expansion.     

Diverging pathways: Differential benzenoid and phenylpropanoid volatile production in Phlox subulata L. cultivars

Previous research into the genetic mechanisms of benzenoid and phenylpropanoid volatile biosynthesis has suggested the potential for metabolic flux, in which phenylalanine substrate dedicated to one pathway branch (i.e., benzenoid production) could alter volatile production in other pathways (i.e., phenylpropanoid production). However, little research has been conducted in planta to verify the validity of this hypothesis. We examined the emission rates of representative benzenoid and phenylpropanoid volatiles from seven cultivars of Phlox subulata L. to determine if cultivars had metabolic flux differences in terms of these two compound categories. Cultivars that produced large quantities of methyl benzoate and benzaldehyde were found to emit little or no phenylacetaldehyde and 2-phenylethanol, and vice versa. These results suggest that P. subulata cultivars experience phenylalanine substrate flux directed toward one pathway and away from the alternate branch. Such a pattern may be the result of differential selection pressures, in which gene expression has been altered to direct flux away from either benzenoid or phenylpropanoid production. Moreover, if these patterns hold true in wild populations, metabolic flux may lead to differential pollinator behavior and further phenotypic evolution. Future research using molecular tools could verify the role of metabolic flux in determining scent phenotypes and pinpoint the exact nature of the genetic mutations leading to phenotypic differences in odor.     

A peroxisomal thioesterase plays auxiliary roles in plant β‐oxidative benzoic acid metabolism

Peroxisomal β‐oxidative degradation of compounds is a common metabolic process in eukaryotes. Reported benzoyl‐coenzyme A (BA‐CoA) thioesterase activity in peroxisomes from petunia flowers suggests that, like mammals and fungi, plants contain auxiliary enzymes mediating β‐oxidation. Here we report the identification of Petunia hybrida thioesterase 1 (PhTE1), which catalyzes the hydrolysis of aromatic acyl‐CoAs to their corresponding acids in peroxisomes. PhTE1 expression is spatially, developmentally and temporally regulated and exhibits a similar pattern to known benzenoid metabolic genes. PhTE1 activity is inhibited by free coenzyme A (CoA), indicating that PhTE1 is regulated by the peroxisomal CoA pool. PhTE1 downregulation in petunia flowers led to accumulation of BA‐CoA with increased production of benzylbenzoate and phenylethylbenzoate, two compounds which rely on the presence of BA‐CoA precursor in the cytoplasm, suggesting that acyl‐CoAs can be exported from peroxisomes. Furthermore, PhTE1 downregulation resulted in increased pools of cytoplasmic phenylpropanoid pathway intermediates, volatile phenylpropenes, lignin and anthocyanins. These results indicate that PhTE1 influences (i) intraperoxisomal acyl‐CoA/CoA levels needed to carry out β‐oxidation, (ii) efflux of β‐oxidative products, acyl‐CoAs and free acids, from peroxisomes, and (iii) flux distribution within the benzenoid/phenylpropanoid metabolic network. Thus, this demonstrates that plant thioesterases play multiple auxiliary roles in peroxisomal β‐oxidative metabolism.     

Tissue-specific expression of a gene encoding a cell wall-localized lipid transfer protein from Arabidopsis.

Nonspecific lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) from plants are characterized by their ability to stimulate phospholipid transfer between membranes in vitro. However, because these proteins are generally located outside of the plasma membrane, it is unlikely that they have a similar role in vivo. As a step toward identifying the function of these proteins, one of several LTP genes from Arabidoposis has been cloned and the expression pattern of the gene has been examined by analysis of the tissue specificity of beta-glucuronidase (GUS) activity in transgenic plants containing LTP promoter-GUS fusions and by in situ mRNA localization. The LTP1 promoter was active early in development in protoderm cells of embryos, vascular tissues, lignified tips of cotyledons, shoot meristem, and stipules. In adult plants, the gene was expressed in epidermal cells of young leaves and the stem. In flowers, expression was observed in the epidermis of all developing influorescence and flower organ primordia, the epidermis of the siliques and the outer ovule wall, the stigma, petal tips, and floral nectaries of mature flowers, and the petal/sepal abscission zone of mature siliques. The presence of GUS activity in guard cells, lateral roots, pollen grains, leaf vascular tissue, and internal cells of stipules and nectaries was not confirmed by in situ hybridizations, supporting previous observations that suggest that the reporter gene is subject to artifactual expression. These results are consistent with a role for the LTP1 gene product in some aspect of secretion or deposition of lipophilic substances in the cell walls of expanding epidermal cells and certain secretory tissues. The LTP1 promoter region contained sequences homologous to putative regulatory elements of genes in the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway, suggesting that the expression of the LTP1 gene may be regulated by the same or similar mechanisms as genes in the phenylpropanoid pathway.     

Production of soybean isoflavone genistein in non-legume plants via genetically modified secondary metabolism pathway

Genetic modification of secondary metabolic pathways to produce desirable natural products is an attractive approach in plant biotechnology. In our study, we attempted to produce a typical soybean isoflavone genistein, a well-known health-promoting metabolite, in non-legume plants via genetic engineering. Both overexpression and antisense suppression strategies were used to manipulate the expression of several genes encoding key enzymes in the flavonoids/isoflavonoids pathway in transgenic tobacco, lettuce, and petunia. Introducing soybean isoflavone synthase (IFS) into these plants, which naturally do not produce isoflavonoids due to a lack of this leguminous enzyme, resulted in genistein biosynthesis in tobacco petals, petunia leaves and petals, and lettuce leaves. In tobacco, when flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H) expression was suppressed by its antisense gene while soybean IFS was overexpressed at the same time, genistein yield increased prominently. In addition, overexpression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) also led to an enhanced genistein production in tobacco petals and lettuce leaves in the presence of IFS than in the plants that overexpressed only IFS.