Ecosystem services from southern African woodlands and their future under global change

Miombo and mopane woodlands are the dominant land cover in southern Africa. Ecosystem services from these woodlands support the livelihoods of 100 M rural people and 50 M urban dwellers, and others beyond the region. Provisioning services contribute $9 ± 2 billion yr⁻¹ to rural livelihoods; 76% of energy used in the region is derived from woodlands; and traded woodfuels have an annual value of $780 M. Woodlands support much of the region''s agriculture through transfers of nutrients to fields and shifting cultivation. Woodlands store 18–24 PgC carbon, and harbour a unique and diverse flora and fauna that provides spiritual succour and attracts tourists. Longstanding processes that will impact service provision are the expansion of croplands (0.1 M km²; 2000–2014), harvesting of woodfuels (93 M tonnes yr⁻¹) and changing access arrangements. Novel, exogenous changes include large-scale land acquisitions (0.07 M km²; 2000–2015), climate change and rising CO₂. The net ecological response to these changes is poorly constrained, as they act in different directions, and differentially on trees and grasses, leading to uncertainty in future service provision. Land-use change and socio-political dynamics are likely to be dominant forces of change in the short term, but important land-use dynamics remain unquantified.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Tropical grassy biomes: linking ecology, human use and conservation’.     

区域生态用地的概念及分类

随着自然资源持续利用的思想、理论逐步深入和发展,生态用地分类及规划研究具有重要意义,成为土地资源利用研究和生态建设工作的重点.总结了国内外生态用地的研究进展,在土地生态系统服务的基础上,提出了生态用地指的是区域或城镇土地中以提供生态系统服务为主的土地利用类型,可将区域土地分为\"生态用地\"、\"生产用地\"和\"生活用地\"三大类型,生态用地按照不同生态系统服务分为自然用地、保护区用地、休养与休闲用地和废弃与纳污用地4个二级类型,进一步分为20个三级类型.生态用地的分类可为建立合理的土地利用生态分类体系和区划提供理论基础.     

Clear and present danger: balancing the land management issues of today with the eternal challenge of climate change

Summary Management of natural ecosystems in Australian landscapes is fraught with difficulties and challenges. While unfavourable climate change is viewed of as an overwhelming critical factor, government and nongovernment groups faced with conserving biodiversity and ecological processes must continue to focus on already well‐advanced present‐day threats that erode the resilience of species to environmental perturbations and change. The most notable of these are posed by land clearing, introduced pests, weeds and inappropriate fire regimes. There are many positive examples of the biodiversity gains that can be made from reconnecting remnant vegetation, intensive and extensive pest and weed control, and re‐adjusting fire regimes. When such pressures are alleviated, native species sometimes display an innate ability to recover. This gives hope that natural systems can be both resurrected and maintained for a range of functions, including providing sufficient suitable habitat to support the movement of component species in response to climate change. Achieving success in managing natural areas over the long term may be further assisted by looking outside the box for funding sources. Monitoring the outcome of land management activities is a key to understanding what is being achieved and should be encouraged wherever possible.     

甘肃临泽绿洲景观的空间结构与生产特性

绿洲景观生态系统包括居民点,耕地,林地,草地,水域,岩漠,砾漠,沙漠,道路,水系10种景观组分;基质为耕地,成因类型为引入型;斑块包括居民点,林地,草地,水域,岩漠,砾漠,沙漠7种类型,成因类型可以分为3类;居民点,林地,耕地为引入型,岩漠,砾漠,沙漠为残留型,草地为环境淘汰型及残留型;廓道包括水系和道路2种类型,道路的廓道密度为水系的1.03倍,耕地以植物生产为主,在利用上应增加生产层次,发展动物生产,避免扩大面积,以维持景观生态系统的景观异质性和景观多样性,对于具有环境资源型和残留型成因特征的景观要素,适当减少生产层次,开发前植物生产,发挥水土涵养,旅游休闲,防风固沙的生态功能,有利于景观异质性与多样性的维持与稳定,对于以残留型为主的成因类型,利用上应发掘前植物生产的潜力,适当发展植物生产,可以避免景观结构的恶化。     

Changes in miombo woodland cover in and around Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, in relation to elephants and fire

One of the consequences of impacts of elephants and fire on woodlands is a change in woody cover, which often results in major challenges for wildlife managers. Changes in miombo woodland cover in and around Sengwa Wildlife Research Area (SWRA) between 1958 and 1996 were quantified by analyzing aerial photographs. Woody cover in SWRA decreazed from 95.2% in 1958 to 68.2% in 1996, with a lowest mean of 62.9% in 1983. The annual absolute rate of woody cover change in SWRA increazed from ?1.1% per annum between 1958 and 1964 to a recovery of 1.6% per annum between 1993 and 1996, while the annual relative rate increazed from ?1.1% per annum between 1958 and 1964 to 3.3% per annum between 1993 and 1996. There was a strong negative correlation between elephant densities and woody cover in SWRA, suggesting that loss of woody cover was mainly due to elephants. Woodland recovery after 1983 was due to reductions in elephant populations through legal and illegal off‐take and reductions in fire frequency. Surrounding areas experienced less woody cover losses than SWRA, mainly due to tree removal by locals whose densities increazed after the eradication of tsetse fly in the 1970s.     

基于生态廊道识别的拉萨河流域生态安全格局构建

构建生态安全格局对于保障区域生态安全、优化国土生态空间具有重要意义。以拉萨河流域为研究区,基于“生态源地-阻力面-生态廊道”的区域生态安全格局构建范式,评估流域土壤保持、水源涵养、固碳、生境质量四项生态系统服务,基于生态系统服务重要性分级识别生态源地;选择土地覆被类型、归一化植被指数、地形起伏度、坡度、距道路距离、距水体距离作为主要阻力因子,利用熵权法形成综合阻力面;利用Linkage Mapper工具基于最小成本路径理论识别生态廊道并判定生态节点,构建流域生态安全格局。结果表明：提取生态源地20个,总面积2531.42 km²,占研究区总面积的7.77%;生态廊道36条,总长度916.87 km,与拉萨河干流平行呈“二”字型分布;生态节点13个,集中分布在裸地、裸岩、低覆盖度草地等地类,构建以生态源地-生态廊道-生态节点组成的“面-线-点”结构生态网络。研究结果为拉萨河流域生态安全和生态经济协调提供数据支持,为区域生态保护与可持续发展提供科学参考。     

河西走廊山地-绿洲-荒漠复合系统耦合的景观生态学机制

系统耦合的基础为非生物环境的空间异质性,基本条件为具有类型相同并且相互连通的廓道,系统耦合的景观生态学机制为非生物环境的空间分异和各种干扰导致的景观异质化,各种干扰是系统耦合的介质,系统耦合从本质上可以被看作尺度变大过程中景观组分的融合与性质转换的过程,系统耦合根据干扰的性质可以分为自然耦合和人为耦合2类,自然耦合是人为耦合的基础,系统生态生产力的提高取决于人为耦合的优化过程。     

基于生态系统服务功能的新疆绿洲生态安全格局识别及优化策略——以拜城县为例

识别生态保护关键区域,优化新疆县域生态空间结构,对促进绿洲区域经济与生态环境和谐发展,提升人类福祉具有重要意义。以拜城县为研究区,通过生态系统服务价值综合评定结果确定生态保护的核心\"源\"区,利用最小阻力模型,结合GIS空间分析技术及CA-Markov模型,识别拜城县生态安全格局,分析其发展变化趋势,探究生态空间布局调整策略,完善县域生态空间网络体系,结果表明:(1)研究期内,拜城县生态系统服务价值总量逐年上升,其中水源涵养、废物处理价值量增长最高,不同服务类型增长率差异较小。(2)分析2009、2016、2019拜城县生态安全格局特征发现,县域生态安全布局整体存在\"源\"地分布不均、廊道结构破碎且网络化程度低、生态脆弱区面积较大的现状特征。(3)基于2009、2016、2019年生态保护格局,同时依据生态\"源\"地及生态保护重要性用地的变化趋势,模拟2029年生态\"源\"地及其重要性等级区域分布,结合县域自然地理特征及总体发展规划,提出构筑\"两带、三功能、四区、多中心、十廊道\"的拜城县生态空间布局体系,为绿洲地区生态安全及区域生态文明建设提供参考。     

A reassessment of the fire‐tolerance of some miombo woody species in the Central Province,Zambia

The fire‐tolerance of 21 woody species in a dry miombo woodland in the Central Province, Zambia was evaluated and compared to an existing classification. The evaluation is based on differences in the vertical distribution of canopy volumes over a range of height intervals after repeated exposure of woodlands to fire. Woody species that showed an inverse correlation between canopy volume and tree height were classified as fire‐sensitive, whilst those that showed a positive correlation were classified as fire‐tolerant. A new method of a rapid and simple field evaluation is described, and further applications are discussed.     

科尔沁沙地关键生态系统服务的约束关系分析

理解生态系统服务间的相互关系,对于区域生态系统服务的管理和优化具有重要意义。以科尔沁沙地为研究区,评估了2000-2018年植被净初级生产力、产水服务、土壤保持服务和风力侵蚀负服务的时空变化,基于分位数分割法提取生态系统服务对之间相互关系的约束线,分析景观水平和类水平上生态系统服务对之间的约束关系,并用约束关系的阈值、约束线回归方程的斜率和常数项来表征约束线的关键特征值。结果表明：（1）2000—2018年科尔沁沙地植被净初级生产力、产水量、土壤保持量和风力侵蚀量的多年均值分别为256.5 gC/m²,211.9 mm,26.3 t/km²和3.8 t/m²;整体上,这四项关键生态系统服务有所改善。在空间上,植被净初级生产力改善的区域主要位于东南部和中部地区;产水量在中部偏南的区域增加;土壤保持量主要在西北部和西南边缘有显著增加;中部和北部地区的风力侵蚀量有所减少,南部的翁牛特旗、奈曼旗和科尔沁左翼后旗等旗县作为风蚀重度区,风力侵蚀仍在加剧,应当重点治理。（2）植被净初级生产力与产水量、土壤保持量、风力侵蚀量的约束线,产水量与土壤保持量、风力侵蚀量的约束线均呈抛物线型;而土壤保持量与风力侵蚀量的约束关系呈线性类型。这些约束线的类型在2000-2018年间几乎保持不变。（3）植被净初级生产力的变化对其他生态系统服务的动态起到放大器的作用。它微小的变化会引起其他生态系统服务较大幅度的变化,是塑造约束关系强度的关键性服务。约束线阈值范围能够为合理利用区域植被净初级生产力提供初步依据,可以使植被净初级生产力对其他服务的负面约束作用最小化。（4）林地和草地提供土壤保持服务的能力较耕地水平高。在景观管理实践中,应重点发展草地、林地生态系统;在耕作条件适宜的地区选择需水量较少、耐旱的农作物并实施节水灌溉,以提高科尔沁沙地景观总体生态系统服务的供给能力。探究生态系统服务对的约束关系及识别其关键特征可以为土地利用优化,调整管理措施及实现区域可持续性提供科学依据。     

中国超大城市土地利用状况及其生态系统服务动态演变

随着城市的快速发展,城市用地及其生态服务功能也在不断发生变化。近十几年间,中国城市发展迅速,超大规模城市的土地利用以及生态系统服务动态演变的一般特征以及差异值得关注。研究以中国1995年非农业人口超过200万的9个超大城市为研究对象(包括上海、北京、天津、重庆、南京、西安、哈尔滨、武汉和广州),对各城市不同用地类型在1995年至2008年这一阶段的利用动态度进行分析。然后以用地结构和谢高地等^[1]提出的大陆生态系统服务价值当量表为基础估算了城市土地生态系统服务价值,并且对城市土地利用结构与生态系统服务之间的关系进行了分析。最后为证明研究结果可信,对每种用地类型对单位面积生态系统服务价值系数的依赖性进行了敏感性分析。结果表明,9个超大城市用地结构变化趋势总体一致, 主要缩减地类为农田和水体,增长地类为建设用地、林地和城市绿地。单位面积生态系统服务价值量1995年总体范围为4996-8854元/hm²,排序为广州>武汉>哈尔滨>南京>西安>天津>北京>上海>重庆,2008年范围为4746-8777元/hm²,排序为广州>哈尔滨>西安>上海>重庆>北京>武汉>南京>天津,各城市均值由1995年的7189元/hm²降到2008年的6987元/hm²。人均享有生态系统服务价值量1995年总体范围为284-7983元/人,排序为哈尔滨>西安>北京>广州>武汉>南京>天津>重庆>上海,2008年范围为305-4538元/人,排序为哈尔滨>重庆>西安>广州>武汉>北京>南京>天津>上海,各城市平均值由1995年的1677元/人降到2008年的1230元/人。超大城市土地生态系统服务动态演变的一致特征是人均享有生态系统服务价值下降,主要减弱的生态系统服务为水文调节和粮食生产,增强的服务为娱乐文化和废物处理,而单位面积生态系统服务价值与生态系统服务结构9个城市之间存在差异。敏感性分析结果显示所有土地类型的敏感度指数皆小于1,证明研究结果可信。研究结果说明城市可持续发展主要面临的问题之一是建设用地无序扩张和各类生态用地的配置不均衡,可为中国迅速城市化的新兴大型城市的生态建设提供参考和指导。     

Relationships between land use, spatial scale and stream macroinvertebrate communities

1. The structure of lotic macroinvertebrate communities may be strongly influenced by land‐use practices within catchments. However, the relative magnitude of influence on the benthos may depend upon the spatial arrangement of different land uses in the catchment. 2. We examined the influence of land‐cover patterns on in‐stream physico‐chemical features and macroinvertebrate assemblages in nine southern Appalachian headwater basins characterized by a mixture of land‐use practices. Using a geographical information system (GIS)/remote sensing approach, we quantified land‐cover at five spatial scales; the entire catchment, the riparian corridor, and three riparian ‘sub‐corridors’ extending 200, 1000 and 2000 m upstream of sampling reaches. 3. Stream water chemistry was generally related to features at the catchment scale. Conversely, stream temperature and substratum characteristics were strongly influenced by land‐cover patterns at the riparian corridor and sub‐corridor scales. 4. Macroinvertebrate assemblage structure was quantified using the slope of rank‐abundance plots, and further described using diversity and evenness indices. Taxon richness ranged from 24 to 54 among sites, and the analysis of rank‐abundance curves defined three distinct groups with high, medium and low diversity. In general, other macroinvertebrate indices were in accord with rank‐abundance groups, with richness and evenness decreasing among sites with maximum stream temperature. 5. Macroinvertebrate indices were most closely related to land‐cover patterns evaluated at the 200 m sub‐corridor scale, suggesting that local, streamside development effectively alters assemblage structure. 6. Results suggest that differences in macroinvertebrate assemblage structure can be explained by land‐cover patterns when appropriate spatial scales are employed. In addition, the influence of riparian forest patches on in‐stream habitat features (e.g. the thermal regime) may be critical to the distribution of many taxa in headwater streams draining catchments with mixed land‐use practices.