Primary basidiospore charge and taxonomy of Agaricomycetes

This article deals with the polarity of electrostatic charges that are carried on ballistic basidiospores after their liberation from fruiting bodies. The spores were collected by placing a portable device beneath the basidiome and allowing them to fall in a horizontal homogeneous electrostatic field, created by vertical parallel plane electrodes. Thus, the experimental setup enabled to investigate the primary charges, the charges present on spores immediately after the release from spore bearing cells. Spores of 135 basidiomes of 50 species of hymenomycetous fungi were collected in various natural conditions. The non-turgescent (drying up, collapsing or ceasing to sporulate) basidiomes were excluded from the taxonomical analysis; the 128 turgescent basidiomes (223 spore samples) of 47 species were taxonomically analyzed. These species represented eight orders (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota), covering 21 families and 36 genera. The analysis showed that the spore charges were distributed according to the polarity similarly in all samples in a species, and in a genus. In most cases also genera of one family had the same type of polarity distribution of spore charges. Possibly all taxa from species to monophyletic families are characterized by specific type of polarity of the primary electrostatic charge of basidiospores. Depending on the taxonomical group, all spore charges were negative, positive, or both negative and positive charges were present. This information could be useful in investing the ballistosporic discharge mechanism and for constructing higher-level phylogeny.     

Amatoxins in wood-rotting Galerina marginata

Amatoxins, bicyclic octapeptide derivatives responsible for severe hepatic failure, are present in several Basidiomycota species belonging to four genera, i.e. Amanita, Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota. DNA studies for G. autumnalis, G. marginata, G. oregonensis, G. unicolor and G. venenata (section Naucoriopsis) determined that these species are the same, supporting the concept of Galerina marginata complex. These mostly lignicolous species are designated as white-rot fungi having a broad host range and capable of degrading both hardwoods and softwoods. Twenty-seven G. marginata basidiomes taken from different sites and hosts (three sets) as well as 17 A. phalloides specimens (three sets) were collected in French locations. The 44 basidiomes were examined for amatoxins and phallotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography. Toxinological data for the wood-rotting G. marginata and the ectomycorrhizal A. phalloides species were compared and statistically analyzed. The acidic and neutral phallotoxins were not detected in any G. marginata specimen, whereas the acidic (β-Ama) and neutral (α-Ama and γ-Ama) amanitins were found in all basidiomes from either Angiosperms or Gymnosperms hosts. The G. marginata amatoxin content varied from 78.17 to 243.61 μg.mg(-1) of fresh weight and was elevated significantly in one set out of three. The amanitin amounts from certain Galerina specimens were higher than those from some A. phalloides basidiomes. Relationship between the amanitin distribution and the chemical composition of substrate was underlined and statistically validated for the white-rot G. marginata. Changes in nutritional components from decayed host due to enzymatic systems and genetic factors as well as environmental conditions seem to play a determinant role in the amanitin profile. Variability noticed in the amanitin distribution for the white-rot G. marginata basidiomes was not observed for the ectomycorrhizal A. phalloides specimens.     

Phellinus caribaeo-quercicolus sp. nov., parasitic on Quercus cubana: taxonomy and preliminary phylogenetic relationships

Phellinus caribaeo-quercicolus sp. nov. is described from several collections made in western Cuba, so far exclusively on Quercus cubana. The species is characterized by a perennial, resupinate basidiomes, cushion-shaped to nodulose and multi-layered when old, apically hooked to hamate hymenial setae, and ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid, thin- to thick-walled, hyaline to faintly yellowish basidiospores, 4.5-5.5 x 3.5-4.5 microm. The species is compared to other Phellinus species with hooked setae, especially Phellinus undulatus, also recorded in Cuba. The preliminary phylogenetic relationships of Ph. caribaeo-quercicolus within the poroid Hymenochaetales complex of genera is presented and discussed here.     

Basidiome formation of an edible wild, putatively ectomycorrhizal fungus, Phlebopus portentosus without host plant

Phlebopus portentosus is a popular wild edible ectomycorrhizal fungus in northern Thailand. In general ectomycorrhizal fungi produce basidiomes when associated with a host plant. In this paper mycelium growth and basidiome production of P. portentosus were examined in pure culture both in vitro and in pot-culture experiments. Five mycelial strains of P. portentosus were isolated from basidiomes and used in the experiments. The mycelia grew fastest on sorghum grains supplemented with fungal-host solution. The mycelia produced sclerotia-like structures after 3 wk incubation in darkness at 30 C. All strains of P. portentosus had the ability to form primordia. The primordia were formed under lowered temperature, high humidity and a 12 h photo-period. They developed to mature basidiomes after 8-12 d in in vitro. In the pot-culture primordia were found after 28-35 d incubation in the greenhouse and mature basidiomes released basidiospores within 6-8 d. Basidiospores were germinated on fungal-host medium and formed mycelial colonies. This fungus showed an ability to produce basidiomes even 2 y after the original isolation from tissues. This research provides valuable information concerning the techniques and protocols for the large scale commercial production of P. portentosus basidiomes in the absence of a host plant.     

The Red-belted Bracket (Fomitopsis pinicola) colonizes spruce trees early after bark beetle attack and persists

The Red-belted Bracket (Fomitopsis pinicola) is one of the major decomposers of coniferous wood in Europe and can reach high densities after outbreaks of bark beetles. However, factors of dead wood type and decay stage, which determine the growth of reproductive biomass, i.e. basidiomes, remain unclear. In 2013, we surveyed 1280 dead wood objects and vital trees in spruce stands killed by the bark beetle Ips typographus in 2012, 2002, 1992 and in undisturbed stands for the presence, number, mean basidiome size and total volume of basidiomes. Living basidiomes were equally abundant on dead wood 1, 11, and 21 y after bark beetle outbreak, but were lacking on living trees. Our results indicate that F. pinicola is an effective early colonizer of the huge resource pulse of dead wood caused by the outbreak of bark beetles and basidiomes can persist for 21 y.     

火菇素的分离纯化及其分子量的测定*

火菇素是一种从金针菇FlammulinaVelutipes中分离纯化出来的具有抗癌活性的简单蛋白。用SDS-PAGE系统,通过与已知分子量的标准参照蛋白比较,确定火菇素的分子量为24kDa,这一结果与其氨基酸组成分析相比偏大,进一步通过电喷雾离子化质谱法(ESIMS)分析,精确测定火菇素的分子量为19891.13Da。推测由于火菇素蛋白与SDS的非正常结合是造成蛋白质在SDS-PAGE中迁移变慢导致偏差的原因。     

Musumecia gen. nov. in the Tricholomatoid clade (Basidiomycota,Agaricales) related to Pseudoclitocybe

Musumecia, a new genus of Agaricales, is described to accommodate the new species Musumecia bettlachensis. Based on a combined ITS– and LSU–rDNA Bayesian, Maximum Likelihood and Maximum Parsimony analysis, Musumecia clearly clusters within the Tricholomatoid clade, where it is sister to Pseudoclitocybe. Musumecia is distinguished from allied genera by a unique combination of macro‐ and micromorphological characters, including basidiomes with a clitocyboid/hygrophoroid habit, emerging from a fleshy pseudosclerotial mass (pseudosclerotium), decurrent and thick lamellae, a brown darkening of both lamellae and stipe, whitish‐cream spore print, elongated non‐siderophilous basidia, smooth, acyanophilous and inamyloid basidiospores, and the absence of both cystidia and clamp‐connections.     

Clitopilus canariensis (Basidiomycota, Entolomataceae), a new species in the C. nitellinus-complex (Clitopilus subg. Rhodophana) from the Canary Islands (Spain)

Clitopilus canariensis is described as a new species belonging to Clitopilus subgenus Rhodophana on the basis of a collection from La Palma, Canary Islands. The new species grows on humus of Cistus monspeliensis and is known from a single site. A photograph of fresh basidiomes of the type-collection and line drawings are provided.     

Factors affecting the structure of Coleoptera assemblages on bracket fungi (Basidiomycota) in a Brazilian forest

Insect–fungal interactions are an important but understudied aspect of tropical forest ecology. Here we present the first large‐scale study of insect communities feeding on the reproductive structures of macrofungi (basidiomes) in the Neotropics. This trophic interaction is not well characterized in most ecosystems; however, beetle consumption of basidiomes is thought to be affected by fungal factors, via mechanisms analogous to those observed in plant–herbivore interactions and in some interactions with fungi as hosts in the Holarctic region. We investigated how the composition of beetle assemblages varies as a function of fungal taxonomic distance, basidiome consistency, and hyphal systems. We collected 367 basidiomes belonging to the orders Polyporales and Hymenochaetales in the subtropical Araucaria angustifolia forest region of southern Brazil, along with any fauna present or without it. Basidiomes were maintained individually in the laboratory in plastic containers for up to three months to allow beetles to develop to adulthood, at which point the beetles were collected. We found that 207 basidiome specimens representing 40 species were associated with beetles. We recorded 447 occurrences of Coleoptera, representing 90 morphospecies from 20 families. We found that assemblages of fungivorous Coleoptera were more similar among more closely related fungi. Furthermore, the beetle assemblages varied as a function of basidiome toughness, which is influenced by sporocarp consistency and hyphal system type. The associations between beetles and basidiomes resemble those reported previously in temperate zones, suggesting continuity in the structure of such associations across a wide latitudinal range.     

Wood‐rotting basidiomycetes associated with declining native trees in timber‐harvesting compartments of the Garden Route National Park of South Africa

Trees in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) indigenous forests in South Africa are selectively harvested for timber based on criteria that include signs and symptoms induced by wood‐rotting fungi. However, virtually nothing is known regarding the identity and host associations of these macro‐fungi in this natural ecosystem. Surveys were conducted in three harvesting compartments in the GRNP to investigate the taxonomic affiliation and species richness of these fungi on standing and recently harvested trees. Samples were collected from basidiomes on infected trees and tree stumps, and from diseased tissues on symptomatic trees. Phylogenetic analyses using ITS sequences characterized the isolates obtained into 26 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) belonging to 17 genera after clustering the sequences at a 97% identity threshold. Ganoderma (Ganodermataceae) and Inonotus (Hymenochaetaceae) were the most species‐rich genera and the Bloukrans compartment, with 22 OTUs, showed the highest species richness. A fungus (OTU1) affiliated with Ganoderma pfeifferi was the most abundant in the surveyed areas. Its predominance was also evidenced on host trees since it occurred on 15 of the 20 tree species sampled, with Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa (Oleaceae) being the most colonized host. Given the wide variety of wood‐rotting basidiomycetes revealed by this study and particularly the preponderance of species with pathogenic potential, more attention should be given to better understand their ecological role in this natural ecosystem as well as the effects of logging that may enhance their dissemination or negatively affect their diversity and the health of trees in the region.     

Paxillus orientalis sp. nov. (Paxillaceae,Boletales) from south-western China based on morphological and molecular data and proposal of the new subgenus Alnopaxillus

The new species Paxillus orientalis is reported from Yunnan Province (south-western China). Based on morphological and molecular characters the novel taxon belongs to the sibling, holarctic alder-associated P. rubicundulus complex. Colour pictures of fresh basidiomes and line drawings are provided, accompanied by notes concerning its taxonomic and phylogenetic relationships within the genus. The new subgenus Alnopaxillus is established to accommodate P. rubicundulus and allied undescribed taxa characterized by basidiomes usually associated with Alnus and with a distinctly areolate–squamulose pileal surface.     

Biological species and morphological characteristics ofArmillaria mellea complex in Hokkaido:A. sinapina and two new species,A. jezoensis andA. singula

Three intersterility groups ofArmillaria mellea sensu lato were discovered by examining all pairwise combinations of monosporous isolates of basidiomes collected in Hokkaido. One of them, group IV, was identified asA. sinapina by mating it with tester strains. Two new species, groups III and V, were namedA. jezoensis andA. singula, respectively. Their morphological forms and the ecology of their basidiomes are described.     

Biological species ofArmillaria and their mycoparasitic associations withRhodophyllus abortivus in Hokkaido

Specimens of basidiomes and/or rhizomorphs ofArmillaria mellea complex and basidiomes ofRhodophyllus abortivus, developing on the same decaying stumps or stems of forest trees, were collected in three forests in Hokkaido. Normal basidiomes ofR. abortivus were found near to, but free from, the rhizomorphs and/or basidiomes ofArmillaria, while abnormal basidiomes, as carpophoroid forms, were developed on the rhizomorphs ofArmillaria. Of three mycoparasiticArmillaria isolates found withR. abortivus, one was identified asA. gallica and two asA. jezoensis. The isolates ofR. abortivus showed excellent mycelial growth and rhizomorph formation on PDA. However, on MDA, RMDA and BMDA, they showed poor aerial mycelia growth and no rhizomorphs. In the contrapositional cultures, the growth ofA. gallica was completely inhibited byR. abortivus on PDA but only slightly inhibited on MDA and RMDA. On the other hand, mutual inhibition at a distance was observed on BMDA. The mycelial growth and rhizomorph formation inA. jezoensis were severely inhibited by the colony ofR. abortivus on PDA, but only slightly inhibited on MDA. On RMDA and BMDA, the colonies of twoArmillaria species andR. abortivus showed mutual inhibition at a distance and apparent rhizomorph formation by bothArmillaria species.     

Ypsilonidium bananisporum sp. nov. (Ceratobasidiales) from Iriomote Island, Japan

Ypsilonidium bananisporum sp. nov. belonging to Ceratobasidiales is described and illustrated. This fungus has all the characteristics of the genusYpsilonidium including reticulate-hypochnoid basidiomes, broad hyphae branching at right angles, broadly clavate basidia with two sterigmata, and basidiospores germinating by repetition. It differs from all hitherto known species in the genus by producing suballantoid to banana-shaped basidiospores, measuring 19.5–22×5.5–6 μm. Contribution No. 314 of the Tottori Mycological Institute.     

Host abundance,durability, basidiome form and phylogenetic isolation determine fungivore species richness

Species with close associations to a specific host species, such as parasites and phytophages, make immense contributions to biodiversity. Hence, factors determining the variation in species richness among hosts are a main focus of ecological research. Investigations of determining factors of fungivorous species among host species are still scarce. Based on ecological patterns of parasites and phytophages, we hypothesized that the species richness of tree‐fungus beetles of the family Ciidae (Coleoptera) would increase with increasing basidiome size, niche diversity of the growth form, durability, increasing abundance and decreasing phylogenetic isolation of the host fungus. Our generalized least‐squares model, controlled by host phylogeny, revealed that Ciidae species richness increases with host abundance, but decreases with host phylogenetic isolation. In contrast with our prediction, Ciidae species richness was higher in annual basidiomes than in perennials. Pileate basidiomes revealed higher species richness than resupinate and stipitate basidiomes, which may be interpreted as being a result of their higher host niche diversity. The importance of host abundance, measured on the landscape scale, corroborates that fungivore species richness among macrofungal hosts is determined by factors similar to those that determine parasite and phytophage species richness among their hosts. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 699–708.     

Strangler unmasked: Parasitism of Cystoderma amianthinum by Squamanita paradoxa and S. pearsonii

The mushroom-forming genus Squamanita comprises 10 described species, all parasitic on basidiomes of other members of the order Agaricales, including members of the genera Cystoderma, Galerina, Inocybe and Hebeloma. Here we report an anatomical investigation of the stipitate “mycocecidium’ (=fungus gall) formed on the basidiome of Cystoderma amianthinum (“powdercap”) by S. paradoxa (“powdercap strangler”), alongside the development of taxon-specific-PCR primer to localise the presence of S. paradoxa/C. amianthinum mycelia within mycocecidia, in associated plant tissues and apparently healthy host basidiomes. Dissection of fungarium samples also confirmed these findings, whilst ITS barcode sequencing of all available samples held at the RBG Kew and Edinburgh fungaria did not reveal any variation in ITS sequences within UK populations of S. paradoxa or the closely related S. pearsonii. The absence of any ¹³C or ¹⁵N isotopic differences between C. amianthinum and S. paradoxa suggests that S. paradoxa is nutritionally dependent on its host. The status of C. amianthinum as host of S. pearsonii is also confirmed.     

Clues for Regulatory Processes in Fungal Uptake and Transfer of Minerals to the Basidiospore

Several fungal species are notorious for the preferential acquisition of toxicants such as AsCdHgPbU in their wild-grown basidiomes, but it is not known how, or whether at all, mineral uptake is regulated. In this study, basidiomes of Kuehneromyces mutabilis, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Hypholoma fasciculare were grown on Fagus sylvatica logs embedded in sand, uranium-overburden soil, and garden soil (SIO) at a lab scale to raise the accessible mineral resources 30 to >1,000 times over those available in the timber alone. Non-embedded logs and a field culture established on SIO served as controls. Concentrations of 22 minerals were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry from microwave-digested samples of timber, soils, whole and dissected mushrooms, and basidiospores. It was the goal to determine whether mineral uptake rates vary simply with their concentration in the substrate or undergo selections which indicate the ability of metal sensing and optimizing/delimiting the quantity of (essential) elements on their passage from a substrate via basidiome to the basidiospores. It is shown that an underrepresented substrate mineral is up-concentrated to a more or less regulated and physiologically compatible mean, whereas a rising external mineral supply leads to uptake blockage by downregulation of the bioconcentration rate in the vicinity of an apparent mycelial saturation point. The resulting concentrations in whole K. mutabilis basidiomes of the essential metals, CaCoCuFeMgMn(Sr)Zn corresponded surprisingly with those in wheat grains which share the main metabolic pathways with fungi and whose metallome is believed to be out-regulated for an optimum and stress-free development. Concentrations of nonessential metals, too, fitted the range of those common crops, whereas KP reached the higher typical level of fungi. Minerals entering the lower stipe of the K. mutabilis basidiome were specifically enriched/diluted on a passage to the gills and once more abruptly up/down-concentrated at the basidium/sterigma/spore interface. Mineral concentrations of spores corresponded then again with those in wheat grains, with the metalloenzyme-linked CdCoCuFeMnNa(Ni) appearing moderately higher. It is concluded that the substrate/fungal interface may be the major site of metal sensing/selecting and uptake regulation. Concentration shifts obtained during the mineral transfer through the basidiome are then subject to ultimate corrections at the gill/spore interface.     

Morphological and molecular characterization of Pisolithus occurring in Hokkaido Island, Northern Japan

Pisolithus basidiomes were found under different forest trees in Hokkaido Island, Japan. These basidiomes were characterized morphologically and molecularly. Although presenting different basidiome morphology and growing under different hosts, specimens presented similar spores ornamentation, and diameters. These spores had coarse, crowded, and blunted spines with three to eight basidiospores per basidium. Ribosomal DNA-based phylogenetic analysis indicated that variability of Pisolithus in this area is low. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Pisolithus analyzed in this study did not group with Pisolithus specimens from other geographical origins. These results suggest that Pisolithus from this area should be taxonomically distinguished from other Pisolithus.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Psathyrella turcosomarginata</Emphasis>, a new species with cheilocystidia possessing mucoid deposits staining bluish green in ammonia solution

Psathyrella turcosomarginata is described and illustrated as a new species from Japan (Fukuoka Prefecture, Kyushu). This species is assigned to section Spintrigerae because of its lack of pleurocystidia and basidiome habit. It is characterized by having fairly large basidiomes, a distinct sulcate-striate pileal margin, and cheilocystidia with mucoid deposits that stain bluish green in ammonia solution.     

Phylogenetic relationships of European Phlegmacium species (Cortinarius, Agaricales)

Phylogenetic relationships of 54 European Phlegmacium species, including members of most of the sections of classical systematics, were studied, integrating macro-, micromorphological and chemical characters of the basidiomes, as well as molecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear rDNA sequences. Microscopical structures of the basidiomes were studied by light microscopy. Basidiospore morphology was examined by scanning electron microscopy. Internal-transcribed spacers (ITS 1 and 2, including the 5.8S) and the D1/D2 (LSU) regions of nuclear rDNA were sequenced and analyzed with a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo approach. Many subgroups detected by the molecular analysis are related to groups known from classical systematical concepts. Among others, these subgroups were significantly supported: i) a group containing most of the members of section Fulvi ss. Brandrud and the species Cortinarius arcuatorum, C. dibaphus and C. multiformis; ii) a group comprising taxa of section Calochroi ss. Brandrud and the species C. fulvocitrinus and C. osmophorus; iii) a group containing species of section Glaucopodes ss. Brandrud and C. caerulescens; iv) a group including members of section Phlegmacioides ss. Brandrud; v) a group that includes the species C. cephalixus, C. nanceiensis and C. mussivus. Stipe shape, color of flesh, pigment contents, KOH reaction on pileipellis and gelatinous layer, degree of development of a gelatinous layer on the pileipellis, and pileipellis structure were useful characters in delimiting subgroups in Phlegmacium, while basidiospore morphology was significant at species level. With the exception of C. glaucopus, C. infractus and C. scaurus, ITS and D1/D2 sequences obtained from collections of the same species from different geographical origins showed very little variation. Our molecular and morphological analyses suggest revisions of the traditional concepts of the subgenus Phlegmacium in Europe.