Anthropology and genetics of the caucasus peoples and the problem of the origin of the caucasoids

The electrophoretical polymorphisms of some blood proteins were studied in the Talysh population of Pirasora situated in South-East Azerbaidjan. We calculated the gene frequencies of these polymorphisms and determined the genetic distances between the Talyshes and some Iranian populations of North, Central and South Iran, Afghans, and three populations of Azerbaijan. The Talyshes are very close to Iranians of Shiraz, whereas they are distant from the Azerbaijanians. Anthropological investigations showed that the Caucasoids and Mongoloids lived in the Aragvi Basin since the Eneolithic period. This was stated by Alexeev (1974), who emphasized the mixture of the Caucasus populations from ancient times on. We calculated the genetic distances between the Caucasus populations and numerous populations of other geographic regions, considering 28 alleles of 12 loci of blood group, serum protein and red cell enzyme polymorphisms and constructed the dendrogram of these populations. The position of the Caucasus populations in the dendrogram corresponds on principle to the earlier anthropological observations. The clustering of the Caucasoid populations corresponds completely with anthropological and historical data, and supports our earlier hypothesis (Nazarova 1999) concerning the differentiation of Caucasoids, Northern Mongoloids and Amerinds from the populations, which inhabitated Asia in palaeolithic times.     

Genetics and the origin of human races

In the last decades, the concept of human races was considered scientifically unfounded as it was not confirmed by genetic evidence. None of the racial classifications, which strongly differ in the number of races and their composition, reflects actual genetic similarity and genealogy of human populations inferred from variability of classical markers and DNA regions. Moreover, intercontinental ("interracial") variability was shown to be far lower than that within populations: the former constitutes 7 to 10% and the latter, about 85% of the total genetic variation. It is believed that the low level of differentiation of regional population groups contradicts their race status and suggests a recent origin of humans from one ancestral population. The results of studies of various genetic systems are in agreement with last conclusion rejecting the hypothesis of regional continuity. According to this hypothesis, the populations of continents regarded as large races have developed during long evolution from local types of archaic humans, in particular, Neanderthals. Phenotypic similarity of different, sometimes unrelated, populations united into one "race" is explained by strong selection since race-diagnostic traits characterize body surface and thus are directly subjected to the influence of environmental (primarily climatic) factors. It has been recently established that variability of the most important of these traits, body and hair pigmentation, is largely controlled by one locus (MC1R), which accounts for its high evolutionary lability. Other traits used for race identification are also likely to be labile and controlled by major genes. However, the fact that the currently existing race classifications are groundless does not mean that such classifications are impossible in principle. Commonly used argumentation (races do not exist because populations are not genetically separated) does not hold water. A polytypic species is characterized by genetic continuity of allopatric populations rather than the presence of narrow genetic boundaries between them. Borderlines between races are usually conventional and arbitrary. As to intergroup variation in humans, it is indeed low but comparable with that in some other species. There are no obstacles to the development of genetic systematics of human races.     

Genetics and the origin of the genetic code

The genetic code has been analysed by a method similar to that used by Gregor Mendel. The current codon catalogue is shown to be symmetrically subdivisible into two discrete subcatalogues of eight quartets each by classifying the quartets asmonocoding (for one amino acid only) vsheterocoding (for two amino acids or for amino acid plus nonsense). The internal symmetries of the two subcatalogues are identical, and are governed by two common parity rules. These rules, together with one governing the subdivision itself, can be explained by the hypothesis that two primaeval sets of polynucleotide-borne anticodons, corresponding closely but not exactly with the subcatalogues originated independently and separately (were not originally together within any replicating pre-or proto-biont). The discorrespondence between the primaeval sets and the subcatalogues is itself symmetrical, involving quartets sharing identical locations in the two subcatalogues. The primaeval sets correspond exactly with the subdivisions of the catalogue proposed by Skoog and co-workers on the basis of the presence vs the absence of cytokinins or “cytokininlike bases” adjacent to the anticodons. A molecular model for the origin of the primaeval anticodon sets is described, and the relationship of the hypothesis with the origin of life, together with some possibilities for testing it, are discussed.     

Genetics of Caucasian population: distribution of various immunological and biochemical markers in western Georgia

The distribution of genetic markers of blood groups (ABO, Rhesus, MNSs, P, Duffy, Kell-Cellano), plasma proteins (Hp, Gc, Tf, C'3) and red-cell enzymes (AcP, EstD, GLO-1), and also ABH secretion among 10 populations of Western Georgia has been studied. The common characteristic of distribution of gene frequencies for the markers studied was obtained as a whole in Georgia. The Georgians were compared for these markers with some populations of the Caucasus, Europe and West Asia. Among Caucasian populations, Georgians are most similar to Abkhasians. According to some systems, Georgians are close to European groups (ABO, Dubby, GLO-1, EstD), while they are similar to West-Asian groups, as judged by other systems (ABH secretion, AcP). According to Rhesus and MNSs systems, Georgians differ both from populations of Europe and from populations of West Asia.     

Host associations and origin in the formation of the Caucasian fauna of fleas (Siphonaptera)

Results of analysis of the Caucasian fauna of fleas and their association with mammal and avian hosts are reported. The Caucasian fauna of potential flea hosts comprises about 130 species of mammals and about 470 species of birds. Most of the flea species in the Caucasian fauna (88 out of 155) parasitize rodents, 51 species of which are permanent hosts of different flea species; 13 flea species occur on 11 species of insectivores; 13 flea species, on 13 species of chiropterans; 14 flea species, on 20 species of carnivores. Only 2 flea species parasitize artiodactyles. 54 species of birds are permanent hosts of 23 species of fleas from 4 genera in the Caucasus. Ten types of ranges of flea species are distinguished; host associations of the Caucasian flea species from these groups are discussed. The greatest numbers of hosts from the families Cricetidae, Muridae, and Sciuridae are associated with fleas with Euro-Asian (extra-Siberian), European, Turanian, and Iranian ranges. Soricidae are known as hosts of flea species with European and Euro-Turanian ranges. Four major groups of flea taxa are represented in the Caucasian fauna. The distribution of the first group is determined by the influence of the palaeofauna of the ancient European continent in the early Cenozoic; that of the second group, by the influence of the fauna of the ancient Asian continent during the Paleogene and part of the Neogene; the third, by the influence of the fauna of southern Europe starting with the Miocene. The fourth group comprises the species which immigrated from northern Europe and Asia in the Late Neogene (2–3 mln years ago).     

On the problem of the origin of Pogonophora

A number of embryological features of the Pogonophora suggest that they could not derive from the Polychaeta and are closely related to Deuterostomia. These are: (1) traces of spiral cleavage that sharply differ the from cleavage of polychaetes in the prospective value of blastomeres; (2) enterocoelic formation of mesoderm; (3) the larva most closely resembles Balanoglossus that has just completed metamorphosis; proto-, meso-, and metasoma of pogonophoran larva correspond (or are homologous) to the proboscis, collar, and trunk of Balanoglossus respectively; while the telosoma can be regarded as an organ appearing late in phylogenesis that serves to burrow into the bottom; (4) larvae of Siboglinum have a transitory mouth located, as it is the case in Enteropneusta, between proto-and mesosoma, very far from the posterior end, where there is closed blastopore; therefore, the former can be considered as a secondary mouth; (5) the asymmetrical development of the anterior pair of coeloms in Pogonophora, Echinodermata, and Amphioxus allows finding homologies between organs developing from these coeloms.     

The origin of homoiothermy--unsolved problem

The analysis of allometric dependence of energy expenditure on body mass among reptiles, birds and mammals has shown that standard metabolic rate of reptiles when they are warmed up to the temperature of homoiothermic animals is an order of magnitude lower than that of birds and mammals. Basal metabolism is originated as special feature historically related to the metabolism during active behavior, rather than thermal regulation. Facultative endothermy was not advantageous for large animals because of long time needed to warm up the body. The ancestors of birds and animals escaped negative consequences of van't-Hoff equation by choosing constant body temperature. Heat conductivity of reptile's covers is so great, that it cannot keep endogenous warm of resting animal at any temperature of the body. Reptile "dressed" in covers of bird or mammal would be able to keep warm under conditions of maximal aerobic muscular activity and body temperature similar to that of homoiothermic animals. The base of chemical thermoregulation in birds and mammals is a thermoregulatory muscle tonus which remains unknown. One can suppose that during evolution of birds and mammals the saltation-liked origin of endothermy "fixed" the level of metabolism typical for running reptile and transformed in into the basal metabolism. This event took place at the cell and tissue level. The absence of palaeontological evidences and intermediate forms among recent species does not allow easy understanding of homoiothermy origin.     

Genetics of Caucasian ethnic groups: distribution of some immunologic and biochemical markers in the Dagestan ASSR]

Distribution of the genetic markers of blood groups (AB0, Rhesus, MN, MNSs, P, Kell-Cellano); plasma proteins (Hp, C'3, Tf, Gc); red-cell enzymes (AcP, EstD, GLO-1) and also ABH-secretion was studied among 6 ethnic groups of Dagesthan. Distribution of gene frequencies in Dagesthan populations and other Caucasian ethnic groups was comparatively studied.     

《遗传学》课程的建设与优化

《遗传学》是本科教学的主干课程之一。文章从《遗传学》课程的特点出发,分析了《遗传学》课程教学中存在的一些问题。讨论了《遗传学》精品课程建设中教学内容的更新、教学方法的改进、计算机辅助课件的创建、电子版教材的编写、教学质量的评估、实验项目的创新以及教学效果的提高等方面的一些思路和方法。     

《遗传学》多媒体教材的编写与实践

教材是传授知识的重要载体, 与教学质量有着密切关系。文章根据多媒体教学已在我国高等教育教学中普遍采用的实际情况, 对《遗传学》多媒体教材的编写形式、遗传学内容和知识点的选择、教材知识模块和结构体系的安排以及多媒体教材编写的特点等方面进行了探讨和实践。     

Qat use in North Yemen and the problem of addiction: A study in medical anthropology

Travelers to North Yemen nearly invariably report that Yemeni people are universally addicted to the drug qat and that the problems of the country are related to this. On the other hand, the majority of Yemenis claim that qat is not only harmless, but that it has many virtues. After describing the chemistry of the drug and the customs of use, this paper addresses the question of the concept of addiction in terms of data gathered during an extensive field study of qat use. Questions of latency, tolerance and availability are discussed, while particular attention and data are devoted to an examination of the analgesic hypothesis. It is concluded that a more complex theory is needed to deal with drug dependencies and that social and cultural perspectives must be added to concepts of the physiological and psychological effects of drugs if progress is to be made toward understanding institutional drug use such as is found with regard to qat.