Lymphocyte and granulocyte migration across the endothelial layer of bovine pulmonary artery intimal explants towards lymphocyte conditioned medium

An intravenous infusion of endotoxin into sheep results in accumulation of equal numbers of lymphocytes and granulocytes in the pulmonary microcirculation. The role of the sequestered lymphocytes in acute lung injury is not known. The present study examines whether lymphocyte migration through pulmonary endothelium contributes to endothelial damage and also examines the effect of lymphokines on granulocyte migration. Bovine pulmonary artery intimal explants were mounted in Boyden chambers and conditioned media, prepared from bovine peripheral blood lymphocytes, was used as the chemoattractant. The rate of 51Cr labelled bovine granulocyte lymphocyte migration into intimal explants was determined over a 3 hr incubation period. Permeability changes were assessed by adding trace amounts of 14C-sucrose and 3H-water to the upper well and following their rate of equilibration with the lower well. 6-Keto-PGF1 alpha was measured in the upper well. Lymphocyte conditioned media was found to be chemotactic for both lymphocytes and granulocytes (lymphocyte migration at 60 min: lymphocyte conditioned media = 18.5 +/- 2.3%, mean +/- s.e. RPMI control = 12.5 +/- 1.5; granulocyte migration at 120 min: conditioned media = 36.1 +/- 5.7, RPMI control = 18.2 +/- 3.0). Ultrastructural examination revealed leukocyte migration followed an orderly sequence during which the leukocytes maintained close contact with the adjacent endothelial cells. No structural evidence of endothelial cell damage was seen at any time examined. Granulocyte migration was associated with an increased rate of 14C-sucrose equilibration after 2 hr of incubation (lower well counts/upper well counts at 2 hr, RPMI control = 0.18 +/- 0.02; lymphocyte conditioned medium = 0.30 +/- 0.04) indicating alteration in the endothelial barrier function. Leukocyte migration, particularly lymphocyte migration, was accompanied by a marked increase in prostacyclin accumulation (3 hr: no leukocytes, 188 +/- 17 ng/ml; lymphocytes, 560 +/- 104). These in vitro findings suggest that lymphocytes and lymphokines may be involved in acute lung injury and also that permeability changes associated with granulocyte migration may depend on the chemoattractant.     

Correlation of permeability with the structure of the endothelial layer of pulmonary artery intimal explants

Changes in vascular permeability are associated with structural damage to endothelial cells. These functional and structural changes can be produced experimentally and examined by using intimal explants from bovine pulmonary artery. Correlation of functional with structural changes allows us to dissect the mechanisms responsible for endothelial damage. We have shown that incubation of intimal explants with histamine causes transient formation of interendothelial dilatations and an increased rate of equilibration of tritiated water and [14C]sucrose across the intimal explant. Exposure to endotoxin also causes interendothelial dilatations but the endothelial damage is more severe than that with histamine, and in vivo experiments show a more prolonged increase in pulmonary vascular permeability. Leukocyte migration has also been suggested to result in a decreased barrier function of the endothelial layer. Experiments with the endothelial layer of intimal explants and separated bovine leukocytes suggest that transendothelial migration may depend on the chemotactic stimulus. Neither granulocyte migration toward zymosan-activated plasma nor lymphocyte migration toward lymphocyte-conditioned medium (RPMI in which lymphocytes were incubated with concanavalin A) leads to detectable increases in explant permeability, but granulocyte migration toward lymphocyte-conditioned medium does result in increased equilibration of [14C]sucrose. Finally, a theoretical model has been used to examine the permeability changes seen for the intimal explants exposed to histamine. The model consists of two compartments with radioactive tracers diffusing across a filter of known permeability. Such a model gives good agreement with data obtained in intact sheep, indicating that mathematical models allow quantitative estimates of barrier function in intimal explants that compare favorably with in vivo data.     

急性低氧条件下大鼠循环血中内皮细胞及肺小动脉内皮细胞的改变

目的:探讨急性低氧对血管内皮细胞(VEC)和循环血液中内皮细胞(CEC)的影响.方法:用光镜观察急性低氧情况下血中CEC的形态并记数,用组织化学染色和显微分光光度计对血中年轻型CEC及肺小动脉VEC的乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活性进行定量分析.结果:与低氧前相比,低氧后各组VEC的LDH活性均下降,且随低氧时间延长,LDH活性下降越明显.而低氧前后各组年轻型CEC的LDH活性是一致的,且明显低于各组VEC的LDH活性.低氧前CEC多为衰老型,低氧后CEC数量增多且多为年轻型,随低氧时间延长年轻型CEC增多越明显.结论:CEC的形态和数量的变化可以反映血管的损伤情况;VEC的LDH活性可以反映VEC向CEC转化的进程;年轻型CEC的LDH活性可以反映VEC脱落时的损伤程度.     

Protein kinase C phosphorylates caldesmon77 and vimentin and enhances albumin permeability across cultured bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell monolayers.

Cytoskeletal protein (CSP) interactions are critical to the contractile response in muscle and non-muscle cells. Current concepts suggest that activation of the contractile apparatus occurs through selective phosphorylation by specific cellular kinase systems. Because the Ca(2+)-phospholipid-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in the regulation of a number of key endothelial cell responses, the hypothesis that PKC modulates endothelial cell contraction and monolayer permeability was tested. Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), a direct PKC activator, and alpha-thrombin, a receptor-mediated agonist known to increase endothelial cell permeability, both induced rapid, dose-dependent activation and translocation of PKC in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (BPAEC), as assessed by gamma-[32P]ATP phosphorylation of H1 histone in cellular fractions. This activation was temporally associated with evidence of agonist-mediated endothelial cell contraction as demonstrated by characteristic changes in cellular morphology. Agonist-induced activation of the contractile apparatus was associated with increases in BPAEC monolayer permeability to albumin (approximately 200% increase with 10(-6) MPMA, approximately 400% increase with 10(-8) M alpha-thrombin). To more closely examine the role of PKC in activation of the contractile apparatus, PKC-mediated phosphorylation of two specific CSPs, the actin- and calmodulin-binding protein, caldesmon77, and the intermediate filament protein, vimentin, was assessed. In vitro phosphorylation of both caldesmon and vimentin was demonstrated by addition of exogenous, purified BPAEC PKC to unstimulated BPAEC homogenates, to purified bovine platelet caldesmon77, or to purified smooth muscle caldesmon150. Caldesmon77 and vimentin phosphorylation were observed in intact [32P]-labeled BPAEC monolayers stimulated with either PMA or alpha-thrombin, as detected by immunoprecipitation. In addition, BPAEC pretreatment with the PKC inhibitor, staurosporine, prevented alpha-thrombin- and PMA-induced phosphorylation of both cytoskeletal proteins, attenuated morphologic evidence of contraction, and abolished agonist-induced barrier dysfunction. These results demonstrate that agonist-stimulated PKC activity results in cytoskeletal protein phosphorylation in BPAEC monolayer, an event which occurs in concert with agonist-mediated endothelial cell contraction and resultant barrier dysfunction.     

Culture of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells on Gelfoam blocks.

Conventional methods of endothelial cell culture on monolayers and beads require enzymatic digestion, traumatic scraping, or centrifugation to transfer cells to other experimental systems. Gelfoam, a porous gelatin block, not only supports the growth of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells but also allows the rapid transfer of cell-laden blocks from one experimental system to another with minimal intervention. This property has been shown to be especially useful for the rapid fixation of endothelial cells for microscopy using standard histologic methods. Histology confirmed that the trabecular nature of the substrate allows endothelial cells to line the interstices of the sponge matrix and grow in a configuration that simulates the appearance of the endothelium in small vessels and capillaries. The inoculation of 1 x 10(5) endothelial cells on 7.5 mg Gelfoam (24 x 8 x 2 mm blocks) was enhanced by fibroblast growth factor and resulted in cell attachment by day 2 with a cell doubling time of 1.7 days. In addition, endothelial cells completely infiltrated 1, 5 and 7.5 mg Gelfoam blocks, as verified by histology. Assays to quantify cell number and protein were easily performed. To facilitate cell counting, the Gelfoam matrix was rapidly removed by the addition of 0.05 mg/ml collagenase, a concentration that interfered minimally with the assay for cellular protein concentration. The data demonstrate that Gelfoam is a suitable support growth matrix for the in vitro culture of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells.     

Trypsin-induced aggregation of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells cultured on microcarriers

We studied adherence between 'luminal' surfaces of pulmonary artery endothelial cells by standard aggregometry techniques, widely used for measuring aggregation of platelets and granulocytes. Using suspensions of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells cultured on microcarrier beads, in an aggregometer, we found that trypsin caused endothelial aggregation. The aggregation response occurred at trypsin concentrations as low as 0.001%. The degree of trypsin-induced aggregation indicated by the magnitude of the change in light transmission through the endothelial suspensions was related to the trypsin concentration, reaching a maximum level at trypsin concentrations of 0.01%. We conclude that trypsin, even in very low concentrations, causes adherence between 'luminal' surfaces of pulmonary endothelial cells probably because the enzyme destroys cell surface proteins which are necessary to prevent intercellular adherence. The method we describe may be useful for studying cell-cell interactions of endothelium.     

N-乙酰半胱氨酸抗脂多糖诱导的肺动脉损伤的研究

目的 :探讨N 乙酰半胱氨酸 (N acetylcysteine,NAC)减轻脂多糖 (lipopolysaccharide ,LPS)所致的肺损伤及其机制。方法 :应用血管环张力检测技术和扫描电镜方法 ,观察了NAC对LPS引起的肺动脉反应性及肺动脉内皮细胞超微结构变化的影响 ;并测定了肺动脉组织中丙二醛 (malondialhyde ,MDA)、超氧化物歧化酶 (superoxidedismutes ,SOD)及一氧化氮 (nitricoxide,NO)的变化。结果 :LPS(4μg/ml,7h)可降低肺动脉对乙酰胆碱 (ACh)介导的内皮依赖性舒张反应 ,NAC(0 .5mmol/L)可逆转此种反应降低而对正常肺动脉舒缩反应无明显影响 ;NAC可改善LPS引起的肺动脉内皮细胞超微结构损伤并可逆转LPS引起的肺动脉组织中MDA、NO含量增高和SOD活性降低。结论 :NAC可通过抗氧化作用保护肺动脉内皮细胞并增强肺动脉内皮依赖性舒张反应 ,提示此可能是其发挥抗肺动脉压增高从而改善内毒素所致肺损伤的机制之一。     

Oxidant injury increases cell surface receptor binding of angiotensin II to pulmonary artery endothelial cells

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), an environmental oxidant, is known to activate phospholipase A1 and modulate the plasma membrane structure of porcine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. We evaluated the effects of exposure to NO2, purified phospholipase B (which acts as phospholipase A1 and A2), or phospholipase A2 on 125I-angiotensin II (Ang II) receptor binding, internalization, or both in pulmonary endothelial cells. Exposure to 5 ppm NO2 for 48 hr at 37 degrees C or 0.075 U each of phospholipase B or A2 in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 30 min at 24 degrees C resulted in an increase in total Ang II binding (i.e., cell surface bound and internalized) by 45% (p less than 0.05), 50% (p less than 0.05), and 85% (p less than 0.001), respectively, compared to controls. An Ang II receptor antagonist, [Sar1 Ile8] Ang II, competitively displaced Ang II binding to control, NO2-, phospholipase B-, and phospholipase A2-exposed cells. Dissociation of bound Ang II in the presence of PBS was less than 1% of total bound Ang II in control, NO2-, and phospholipase B-exposed cells and was 50% of total bound Ang II in phospholipase A2-exposed cells. In the presence of isotonic acetic acid/NaCl, in excess of 90% of cell surface-bound Ang II was dissociated from control, NO2-, and phospholipase B-exposed cells, and there was less than 2% of Ang II detectable when acid-treated cells were subjected to NaOH solubilization. In cells exposed to phospholipase A2, acetic acid treatment did not release cell-bound Ang II, and the remaining Ang II was recovered in the NaOH solubilized fraction.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Synchronized oscillations in cytoplasmic free calcium concentration in confluent bradykinin-stimulated bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell monolayers

Bradykinin-evoked rises in [Ca2+]i were measured in fura-2-loaded bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell monolayers by dual wavelength excitation fluorimetry. In monolayers seeded thinly and grown to confluence, bradykinin, in the presence of external Ca2+, evoked a rise in [Ca2+]i composed of an initial peak and subsequent oscillating plateau. In the absence of external Ca2+, bradykinin evoked a rise in [Ca2+]i which then returned to the basal value without oscillating. In monolayers seeded near confluent density, the bradykinin-evoked peak in [Ca2+]i was followed by a steady plateau which showed no oscillation. The addition of the phorbol ester, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, to a monolayer during bradykinin-evoked oscillations abolished the oscillations and lowered [Ca2+]i partway back toward the basal level. The addition of the protein kinase C inhibitor, H7, did not abolish oscillatory activity, although the frequency of oscillation was reduced. These results indicate that synchronized oscillatory activity can occur in endothelial cell monolayers. It is suggested that these oscillations are dependent on intercellular coupling developed when the cells are grown to confluence and that the mechanism responsible for generating oscillations in [Ca2+]i requires extracellular Ca2+ and involves protein kinase C.     

Calcium entry through receptor-operated channels in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells

The activation of endothelial cells by endothelium-dependent vasodilators has been investigated using bioassay, patch clamp and 45Ca flux methods. Cultured pulmonary artery endothelial cells have been demonstrated to release EDRF in response to thrombin, bradykinin, ATP and the calcium ionophore A23187. The resting membrane potential of the endothelial cells was -56 mV and the cells were depolarized by increasing extracellular K+ or by the addition of (0.1-1.0 mM)Ba2+ to the bathing solution. The electrophysiological properties of the cultured endothelial cells suggest that the membrane potential is maintained by an inward rectifying K+ channel with a mean single channel conductance of 35.6 pS. The absence of a depolarization-activated inward current and the reduction of 45Ca influx with high K+ solution suggests that there are no functional voltage-dependent calcium or sodium channels. Thrombin and bradykinin were shown to evoke not only an inward current (carried by Na+ and Ca2+) but also an increase in 45Ca influx suggesting that the increase in intracellular calcium necessary for EDRF release is mediated by an opening of a receptor operated channel. High doses of thrombin and bradykinin induced intracellular calcium release, however, at low doses of thrombin no intracellular calcium release was observed. We propose that the increased cytosolic calcium concentration in endothelial cells induced by endothelium dependent vasodilators is due to the influx of Ca2+ through a receptor operated ion channel and to a lesser degree to intracellular release of calcium from a yet undefined intracellular store.     

内源性过氧亚硝基阴离子介导脂多糖导致肺动脉内皮细胞损伤

在培养的牛肺动脉内皮细胞(bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells,BPAECs)水平上,观察脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)对BPAECs诱生过氧亚硝基阴离子(peroxynitrite,ONOO~-)能力及内皮源性ONOO~-在LPS致BPAECs损伤中的作用。结果显示:(1)LPS剂量依赖性地引起BPAECs诱生ONOO~-生成标志物硝基酪氨酸(nitrotyrosine,NT)的荧光强度(即ONOO~-)明显增多,NT阳性细胞数和百分率也明显增多或增高(P<0.05);iNOS选择性抑制剂氨基胍(AG)明显抑制LPS诱生ONOO~-增多(P<0.05),而NT阳性细胞数和百分率分别减少或降低,但无明显差异。(2)在LPS作用下BPAECs培养上清中的MDA含量和LDH活性明显增多和增高,呈现剂量依赖性效应。加AG后MDA含量明显降低(P<0.001),LDH活性呈降低趋势。(3)LPS可诱导BPAECs凋亡明显增多,用EB荧光染色后可见细胞染色质浓集、核变小等凋亡征象。AG可导致LPS引起的BPAECs凋亡明显减少,但仍明显高于溶剂组。LPS可导致BPAECs线粒体呼吸抑制及膜电位下降。上述结果表明,LPS可引起BPAECs生成ONOO~-增多,ONOO~-参与介导LPS所致BPAECs过氧化损伤与细胞凋亡。     

Regulation of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells.

To evaluate the regulation of endothelial cell Cu,Zn-SOD, we have exposed bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells in culture to hyperoxia and hypoxia, second messengers or related agonists, hormones, free radical generating systems, endotoxin, and cytokines and have measured Cu,Zn-SOD protein of these cells by an ELISA developed in our laboratory. Control preconfluent and confluent cells in room air contained 196 +/- 18 ng Cu,Zn-SOD/10(6) cells. A23187 (0.33 microM), forskolin (10 microM), isobutylmethylxanthine (0.1 mM), dexamethasone (1 microM), triiodothyronine (1 microM) and retinoic acid (1 microM) failed to alter this level of Cu,Zn-SOD. Exposure to anoxia and hyperoxia both elevated the level approximately 1.5-2.0-fold over 20% oxygen-exposed controls at 48-72 hr. Similarly, exposures to glucose oxidase (0.0075 units/ml), menadione (12.5 microM), xanthine-xanthine oxidase (10 microM, 0.03 units/ml) and H2O2 (0.0005%) increased the level up to two-threefold over controls at 24-48 hr. Lipopolysaccharide, TGF beta 1, TNF alpha, and Il-1 also increased levels of cellular Cu,Zn-SOD, but only in proliferating cells. Il-2, Il-4, interferon-gamma, and GM-CSF had no effect on Cu,Zn-SOD. All treatments that elevated SOD resulted in inhibition of cellular growth, but decreased growth of cells at confluence alone was not associated with increased Cu,Zn-SOD. We propose from these studies that Cu,Zn-SOD of endothelial cells is not under conventional second messenger or hormonal regulation, but that up-regulation of the enzyme is associated with (and perhaps stimulated by) free-radical or oxidant production that also may be influenced by availability of certain cytokines under replicating conditions.     

肿瘤坏死因子致肺微血管内皮细胞单层通透性损伤的实验研究

目的和方法：用针头式滤器检测肿瘤坏死因子（TNF）作用前后及三种药物干预时大鼠肺微血管内皮细胞（RPMVEC）单层通透性的变化,并用免疫组化的方法检测TNF作用前后细胞F－肌动蛋白的改变。结果：TNF作用30min、60min、90min通透系数Kf值较致伤前显著增高;分别加福莫特罗（FOR）、山莨菪碱或霍乱毒素（CTX）干预时Kf值均显著低于TNF组。而TNF作用90min,RPMVEC F-肌动蛋白发生明显解聚：分别加POR、山莨菪硷或CTX干预时F－肌动蛋白无明显变化。结论：TNF诱导RPMVEC单层通透性增高的机制与细胞F－肌动蛋白解聚有关,FOR、山莨菪碱和CTX可能通过抑制F－肌动蛋白解聚而抑制NF诱导的RPMVEC单层通透性增高。     

Inhibitory effects of isoproterenol on PAF-induced endothelial cell permeability and morphological changes

Using a model to study vascular permeability under hydrostatically perfused bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell (EC) monolayers and a software to automatically analyse cell morphological parameters in a computer image workstation, the effects of isoproterenol (IPN) on platelet-activating factor (PAF)-induced changes in EC monolayer permeability and cell morphological parameters were studied. Albumin has the fortifying effect on endothelial barrier function. After treatment of EC monolayer with 10-8mol/L PAF, trans-monolayer permeability increased, cell surface area decreased, and intercellular space enlarged. As pretreatment with 10-4mol/L IPN, PAF-induced EC permeability increment and morphological changes were blocked. The results suggest that EC contraction and intercellular gap expansion are important mechanisms for PAF-induced high vascular permeability. IPN inhibits the effects of PAF via stabilization of EC morphology and prevention of intercellular gap formation.     

Endotoxin induction of an inhibitor of plasminogen activator in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells

We have examined the effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin) on the fibrinolytic activity of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Endotoxin suppressed the net fibrinolytic activity of cell extracts and conditioned media in a dose-dependent manner (threshold dose, 0.1 ng/ml; maximal dose, 10-100 ng/ml). The effects of endotoxin required at least 6 h for expression. Cell extracts and conditioned media contained a 44-kDa urokinase-like plasminogen activator. Media also contained multiple plasminogen activators with molecular masses of 65-75 and 80-100 kDa. Plasminogen activators in extracts and media were unchanged by treatment of cells with endotoxin. Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) abolished fibrinolytic activity of extracts and conditioned media. DFP-treated samples from endotoxin-treated but not untreated cells inhibited urokinase and tissue plasminogen activator, but not plasmin. Inhibitory activity was lost by incubation at pH 3 or heating to 56 degrees C for 10 min. These treatments did not affect inhibitory activity of fetal bovine serum. Incubation of 125I-urokinase with DFP-treated medium from endotoxin-treated cells produced an inactive complex with an apparent molecular mass of 80-85 kDa. The complex could be detected by chromatography on Sephadex G-100, but not by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. These findings suggest that low doses of endotoxin suppress fibrinolytic activity in endothelial cells by stimulating the production or expression of a fast-acting, relatively labile inhibitor of plasminogen activator.     

Induction of cystine transport in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells by sodium arsenite.

Sodium arsenite is one of a number of agents reported to induce a 30-34 kDa 'stress' protein in cells. Other agents which induce this stress protein, including diethyl maleate (DEM) and H2O2, have also been reported to be inducers of cystine transport in fibroblasts, macrophages, endothelial cells and other cell types. We have determined that micromolar levels of sodium arsenite increase cystine transport in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (BPAEC), resulting in increases in intracellular glutathione (GSH). The increase in cystine transport appears to be due to stimulation of the synthesis of a protein analogous to the xc- transport system, a sodium-independent system specific for cystine and glutamate. We have determined that this stimulation is maximal between 8-16 h after addition of sodium arsenite and is inhibited by exogenous GSH. Others have reported that synthesis of the 30-34 kDa stress protein is maximal between 2-4 h and returns to baseline by 6-10 h. We conclude that cystine transport may be considered a 'secondary' stress response and is likely to be modulated by sulfhydryl-reactive agents.     

Effects of hypoxia and hyperoxia on proteoglycan production by bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells

Bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells in culture were used to assess the influence of oxygen tension on proteoglycan synthesis. Cells exposed to 3% O2 (hypoxia) for 72 h and then labeled with [35S]sulfate for 5 h accumulated significantly less [35S]proteoglycan in medium than cells exposed to 20% O2 (control). This decrease was due primarily to a reduction in heparan sulfate. Cells exposed to 80% O2 (hyperoxia) for 72 h secreted slightly more [35S]proteoglycan into medium than controls. Greater accumulation of chondroitin sulfate was responsible for the increase. The amount of cell-associated proteoglycan did not change significantly in cells cultured in 3% or 80% O2 as compared with control cells cultured in 20% O2. Proteoglycans produced by hypoxia- or hyperoxia-treated cells were found to be similar in size to proteoglycans produced by cells cultured at 20% O2. Glycosaminoglycan sulfation, as measured by ion-exchange chromatography, did not appear to change with varying oxygen tensions. Our results demonstrate that production of proteoglycans secreted by endothelial cells in culture is sensitive to oxygen tension.     

槲皮素对凝血酶所致的内皮细胞损伤的保护作用研究

本实验采用凝血酶损伤内皮细胞模型,观察了槲皮素对内皮细胞结构和功能的影响．结果表明,槲皮素0．5,5和50umol／L明显降低凝血酶刺激的内皮细胞对内皮素（ET）的释放,增加内皮细胞培养液中组织纤溶酶原激活物（t—PA）量,并可改善内皮细胞的超微结构。     

Methods for microcarrier culture of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells avoiding the use of enzymes

Enzymes situated along the luminal surface of pulmonary endothelial cells interact with circulating solutes, notably with vasoactive substances, to regulate the hormonal composition of systemic arterial blood. However, it is becoming clear that the range and complexity of reactions occurring at or near the surface of endothelial cells are greater than previously recognized. In addition, evidence indicates that the quality of cell cultures used to define specific endothelial functions must be carefully controlled, together with development of improved understanding of the effects of long-term culture on pulmonary endothelial cells. We have developed new techniques for the culture of pulmonary endothelial cells which avoid exposure to proteolytic enzymes at both the isolation step and during subculture. A combination of mechanical harvest and culture on microcarrier beads has provided a system for the long-term, large-scale culture of pulmonary endothelial cells, features which to a large extent determine the scope of biochemical studies which can be undertaken.