Cereals from a Bronze Age storage vessel at Torralba D'En Salort,Menorca, Spain

Charred cereals were recovered from a Bronze Age storage vessel excavated from a settlement in Menorca. The cereals may have been charred by accident or connected with some ceremony or ritual. Most of the cereal was hulled and naked barley, although a small amount of wheat representing a wide range of different morphologies was also present.     

The first find in southern Georgia of fossil honey from the Bronze Age,based on palynological data

The results of a palynological analysis of the organic content of earthenware pots from the Kodiani burial mound (27th–25th centuries b.c.) are reported. The character of the palynological spectrum differs significantly from that of a buried soil within the same burial mound. In the samples taken from the pots, pollen concentration is very high, pollen grains are perfectly preserved and an abundance of pollen from insect-pollinated plants is recorded. It is well known that these features are peculiar to honey palynospectra. In all three pots the pollen of Rosaceae, a family of plants that produce good honey, is dominant. However, the second, third and fourth most dominant pollen types in all three samples are different. For example, Tilia pollen is the second dominant in only one pot. In the second pot, Apiaceae and Poaceae are predominant, and in the third pot, Poaceae, both wild and cultural, is the second dominant. It is clear that the different pots contained different types of honey. The variety of honey types indicates highly developed bee-keeping in the Early Bronze Age. In the same regions of Georgia, agriculture was also highly developed. Wheat cultivation was very important. According to the palynospectra, the landscape and climate of this period were probably quite different to those of today.     

Caesium-137 and lead-210 dating of recent sediments from Mondsee (Austria)

Mean annual sedimentation rates over the last 20–30 years were determined in the pre-alpine Mondsee (Upper Austria) using Cs-137 and Pb(Po)-210 profiles for sediment core dating and two natural sediment markers. Lower sedimentation rates of about 2–3 mm yr^–1 were observed in the central part of the lake near the shore at 18–20 m and in the southern part at 30 m depth. Higher sedimentation rates of 4–7 mm yr^–1 were found in the central part of the lake at 47 and 65 m and in the northern bay at 18 and 41 m depth. At both these sites the Pb-210 profiles were strongly disturbed in the upper zone of the sediment cores, whereas the Cs-137 pattern remained intact. The higher annual sediment accumulation rates can be explained only partly by deposition of allochthonous material discharged by the streams, enhanced eutrophication in these parts of the lake, erosion and sediment focusing by turbidity currents being also probable.     

Annual tree rings revealed by radiocarbon dating in seasonally flooded forest of the Mapire River,a tributary of the lower Orinoco River,Venezuela

The occurrence of seasonal growth rings in the wood of Campsiandra laurifolia, Acosmiun nitens, Pouteria orinocoensis and Psidium ovatifolium, common species growing in the flooding forest of the Mapire river, was analyzed using wood anatomy and ring- width analysis. The test of the annual ring formation was performed using radiocarbon analysis based on the nuclear weapon effect. All species showed growth rings visible to the naked eye. The ring boundaries in all cases were marked by bands of marginal parenchyma. The index ring-width curves of the four studied species showed a strong relationship with the fluctuation of the water river level during the non flooded months, suggesting that an increase in the water level during these months positively influenced the growth indicating that the rings were formed on an annual basis. The content of radiocarbon in the wood of anatomically predated rings of Campsiandra laurifolia and Pouteria orinocoensis confirm these results. All studied trees are slow growing with less than 2.5 mm annual increment.     

First direct dating of a presumed Pleistocene hominid from China: AMS radiocarbon age of a femur from the Ordos Plateau

Human remains from the Xarusgol Valley, Ordos Plateau, northwestern China, have been considered to date to the Late Pleistocene. In order to ascertain their true age, direct AMS (14)C dating of a femur collected in the early 1920s was conducted. The results demonstrate that the femur is very young, with one sample of 'post-bomb' age and the other sample c. 200 years old. This first direct dating of a Chinese fossil hominid underscores the need to apply the same methodology to other Chinese modern human fossils currently believed to be of Pleistocene age.     

Optically stimulated luminescence dating of cave deposits at the Xiaogushan prehistoric site, northeastern China

The Xiaogushan cave site is one of the most important prehistoric sites in North China. The stone and bone artifacts found in the cave are similar to European contemporaneous artifacts. Cave deposits consist of five layers that have been dated from 46,353 ± 1179 to 4229 ± 135 cal. yr BP, using radiocarbon dating techniques on charcoal and bone samples collected from Layers 2-5. In this paper, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques were applied to date six samples taken from Layers 1-3. The luminescence properties of the fine-grained and coarse-grained quartz extracts indicate that the materials are suitable for OSL dating using a single-aliquot regeneration-dose (SAR) protocol. The OSL ages obtained are broadly consistent with the stratigraphy and the associated calibrated radiocarbon ages. The dating results show that the cave was first occupied by humans about 70 ka. The human occupation of the cave may be related to climate change. An occupation hiatus is inferred to between ∼17 to ∼10 ka. The stone and bone artifacts found in Layers 2 and 3 may indicate the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transitions in the region.     

Disturbance and climatic influences on age structure of ponderosa pine at the pine/grassland ecotone, Colorado Front Range

Abstract. In the Colorado Front Range, disturbances and climatic variation influence stand structure of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) along the lower timberline ecotone. Over the past 100 years there has been a shift to a greater density and extent of ponderosa pine at the forest-grassland boundaries. Ponderosa pine regeneration at lower timberline appears to be influenced by fires in the 1860s and decreased grazing pressure in the 1970s–1980s. Climatic variation may also have influenced age structure, even though analyses of age structure at a 10-year class scale prevented the detection of climatic influences occurring at a finer scale. These changes in disturbance regimes, possibly together with moister springs/early summers, created favourable conditions for the increase in density and extent of ponderosa pine at lower timberline ecotone.     

Archaeobotanical data and crop storage evidence from an early Bronze Age 2 burnt house at Arslantepe, Malatya, Turkey

Excavations on the southwest area at Arslantepe, Malatya, Turkey, by far the largest tell on the Malatya plain from the 5th millennium to the Neo-Hittite age, revealed an important change in the settlement patterns during the two main levels of the VI C Period of the site (Early Bronze Age 2, 2750–2500 cal b.c.). The latter level corresponds to a village founded on neatly shaped terraces in a layout which lasted for centuries, well into the following Early Bronze Age 3. This continuity was not broken even by violent fires that at times destroyed some houses, producing a huge quantity of charred plant remains, which comprised fruits, seeds and wood charcoal. The archaeobotanical data so far obtained from the EB2 house A607, the richest one in macro-remains, on which efforts have been concentrated first, provides much data about the use of the surrounding land. Charcoal of Quercus (deciduous oaks) (85%) followed by Populus (poplar) (9%) are dominant among wood remains, while Hordeum (barley) (70%) is the dominant crop found, followed by Cicer (chickpea) (17%). The crop storage methods were investigated by mapping the positions of charred fruits and seeds both according to the grid system and in comparison to the layout of facilities (grinding stone, hearths, oven) and the distribution of pottery (jars, bowls, pots) in order to detect where the crops were kept and the ways in which they were stored, processed, and used. The house facilities and furniture suggest that the house was a multifunctional place, which included storage space, but which was limited to household needs. The new archaeobotanical investigation so far carried out on the burnt house A607 suggests some implications on the degree of agriculture, on crop storage and on food processing practises and also gives information on the natural landscape surrounding the site.     

Analysis of the fuel wood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper mining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol,Austria)

Charcoal analysis was carried out as part of an interdisciplinary project focusing on the copper mining history of the former mining area of Schwaz and Brixlegg, a region pivotal as a copper source in prehistoric Europe. The goal was to use remains of carbonised wood to investigate environmental implications of prehistoric mining, as well as to gain new insight about the ancient mining technique of fire-setting. Charcoal samples from seven copper mining sites (Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) were analysed. The results reveal a strong preference for coniferous wood as fuel in fire-setting, but not in ore smelting/roasting processes. Species composition at the ore-processing sites indicates moderate forest degradation processes caused by human intervention.     

Evidence from charcoal analysis for environmental change during the interval late Bronze Age to Roman,at the archaeological site of Castro de Penices,N.W. Portugal

Vegetation and environmental change from late Bronze Age to the Roman period in north-west Portugal is reconstructed on the basis of charcoal analyses. The site was occupied by people of the Castrejo culture, i.e. an Iron Age culture that developed in the north-west Iberian peninsula. The pattern of exploitation of natural wood resources by local populations during this period appears to be similar during the three phases of occupation. The frequencies of light-demanding plant species, mostly Leguminosae, testify to considerable destruction and degeneration of the climax woodlands. The preference of particular wood for specific uses, such as roofing, is discussed and the Holocene history of selected trees within the wider region is considered.     

Disease and mortality in the Early Bronze Age people of Bab edh-Dhra, Jordan.

During the 1977 field season at the Early Bronze Age site of Bab edh-Dhra 92 individuals were recovered from underground shaft tomb chambers. Morbid conditions found in these skeletons include trauma, possibly two cases of tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, post-menopausal osteoporosis and congenital anomalies. Of the 92 skeletons recovered 56 (61%) were 18 years of age or older, 28 (30%) were between 1 and 18 years of age and 8 (9%) were less than one year of age.     

Preparation, reconstruction and interpretation of seven human skeletons from the late Bronze age (urn-field-culture) found at a storage pit in Stillfried/March, lower Austria.

In the first published paper "Stillfried-Arch?ologie-Anthropologie" (Felgenhauer, Szilvássy, Kritscher & Hauser 1988) emphasis of study was laid on morphological, metric and radiological analyses of the 7 skeletons from the late Bronze age (urn-field-culture) found at a storage pit in Stillfried/March in Lower Austria. The present publication deals with the methods of reconstruction of this spectacular discovery. When the skeletal material was disinterred in 1976 it was decided to make appropriate arrangements for an in-situ-presentation at a later stage. After the preparatory work and the scientific investigations were concluded, an in-situ presentation of the 7 skeletons was placed as a key-exhibit in the anthropological displays in the Natural History Museum in Vienna. The 7 skeletons represent three grown-ups and four children i.e. a man about thirty years of age, a woman of forty and one of forty five years of age, as well as a girl of nine and three boys eight, six and three years of age. The reconstruction of this outstanding discovery demanded not only an answer to the genealogical question but also an interpretation of the circumstances of death making use of forensic evidence. Additionally, the personal state of the seven individuals, their physical shape, state of health, and their racial attachment were discussed.     

High-precision U-series dating of Locality 1 at Zhoukoudian, China

Thermal ionization mass spectrometric(230)Th/(234)U dating has been carried out on intercalated speleothem samples from the limestone cave occupied by Homo erectus at Zhoukoudian, China. The samples were recently collected in proper stratigraphic context after detailed field examinations. The results show that the age of the No. 5 Skull from Layer 3 is >400 ka, possibly in the range of about 400-500 ka, and that the hominid fossils from the lower strata are at least 600 ka and possibly >800 ka, much older than previously thought. The near-equilibrium(230)Th/(234)U ratios and internal consistency of the dates and stratigraphy lend credence to the results and allow us to comment on their important implications for human evolution.     

Reconstruction of paleodemographic characteristics from skeletal age at death distributions: perspectives from Hitotsubashi, Japan

This is a demographic exploration of the city of Edo, which reveals the changes that accompanied its urbanization and analyzes the skeletal remains of 207 individuals from a specific site in Tokyo (Hitotsubashi), using several paleodemographic approaches. A comparison of the three methods employed herein suggests that the Bayesian and maximum likelihood estimation techniques provide more plausible mortality patterns than the direct method of age estimation because the direct method of age estimation relies on published age intervals for the auricular surface and that would account for the underestimation of old people relative to the other two methods. Analyses using these new approaches indicate a short life span tendency for the people of Hitotsubashi. Although we cannot rule out methodological problems of adult-age estimation, one plausible interpretation of that life expectancy is an inadequate food supply and a poor public health situation. This study suggests that, in Tokugawa Japan, urbanization might have imposed health risks, increasing the risk of mortality. Analysis of demographic data from Hitotsubashi has refined our understanding on the impact of urbanization on the Edo period, and presents new perspectives on paleodemography in Japan.     

Reconstructing the history of log-drifting in the Reichraminger Hintergebirge, Austria

The watersheds of the rivers Enns and Steyer border the Reichraminger Hintergebirge. This area has a long tradition in the iron processing industry. Because mineral coal was not available, charcoal has been produced for the iron industry for the past 500 years, leading to a heavy exploitation of the vast forests (180 km²).

From the logging sites in the mountains the timber had to be transported up to 12 km to the forges in the lowland. Most of the small rivers had insufficient water to drift logs efficiently. Therefore, at gorges or at places where there were narrow steep sided valleys wooden dams (klausen) were built to block the water, using the first cut trees of a newly targeted harvesting area. By abruptly opening the dams, the rapid flow of the raised water level carried the logs to the next klausen. Up to seven klausen were built in a valley before the rechen (rake-like grids within the river to collect the logs) of the Enns and Steyer were reached.

To reconstruct the history of log drifting in the Reichraminger Hintergebirge, 33 klausen and rechen were visited and dendrochronologically sampled. The remaining wood of the dam constructions showed progressive stages of degradation, and in some cases only a few logs remained preserved under the water. With cores from living trees added to the dataset, master chronologies were established for spruce (576 years), fir (569 years) and larch (342 years). The construction history of the klausen can be sequentially traced back to 1563 AD. The time spans of the individual chronologies varied between 40 and 392 years. All available conifer species were utilized to build the dams, except during the 19th century, when the most suitable species - larch - was used to a higher degree.     

Growth and age structure of the swan mussel Anodonta cygnea (L.) at different depths in lake Mattsee (Salzburg, Austria)

Unionid clams were collected at 1–2 m, 3–4 m and 6–7 m depth in lake Mattsee, a moderately mesotrophic lake, to investigate the effect of depth on clam growth and age structure. No significant differences in age structure of Anodonta cygnea were found (p=0.65). Three and ten years old clams were present at all depths, but in different percentages. Whereas at 1–2 m 13.3% of the collected clams were <4 years old, this percentage was 4.4% at 6–7 m and 7.1% at 3–4 m. A greater percentage (6.7%) of older mussels (9, 10 years) were collected at 6–7 m than at 1–2 m (2.2%). Growth declined with depth. Total length at a given age of clams at 1–2 m and 3–4 m did not differ (p=0.54), whereas differences were significant between clams at 1–2 m and 6–7 m (p<0.05) as well as between 3–4 m and 6–7 m (p<0.05). The Growth constant k was highest at 1–2 m depth.     

Human impact during the Bronze Age on the vegetation at Lago Lucone (northern Italy)

Lake-sediment records were used to reconstruct human impact on the landscape around Lago Lucone (45°33′N, 10°29′E, 249 m a.s.l.), a former lake in the western amphitheatre system of the Lago di Garda. Presence of prehistoric human populations is attested by pile-dwelling settlements from the Early-Middle Bronze Age, with one settlement at a distance of only 100 m from the coring site. Pollen, plant-macrofossil and microscopic charcoal analyses were applied to a 250 cm sediment core with four dates providing the time control. A mixed oak forest that was important during the Early-Middle Holocene was cleared and replaced by open vegetation during the Bronze Age (∼2000–1100 b.c.) when open lands were estimated to have covered more than 60% of the total relevant pollen-source area. During a phase of high human impact, independent climatic proxies suggest warm and dry climatic conditions. Later, ca. 1100 b.c., palaeobotanical evidence indicates a sharp decrease in human pressure in the Lago Lucone area. The comparison with other sedimentary palaeocultural records shows that the period 1300–1100 b.c. was characterised by general declines of agricultural activities both south and north of the Alps. These declines have been previously attributed to a change towards wetter and colder climatic conditions in and around the Alps. However, the decline in human impact around Lago Lucone cannot be exclusively attributed to climatic variation. Therefore other forcing factors independent of climatic changes, such as cultural crises or changes in spatial organisation of the habitats, cannot be ruled out under the present state of knowledge.     

Degenerative Joint Disease and enthesopathies in a Bronze Age population from Sindou cave (Senaillac-Lauzes,Lot, France)

The anthropological characteristics of the people who lived during the cultural period of the Late Bronze Age in South West France still remain practically unknown because very few sites have provided skeletal remains which permit of an exhaustive study. The cave of Sindou is, in that sense, one of the scarce exceptions. Although the sample of Sindou cannot be considered as representative of the whole regional population (N=50), we studied the presence and severity of DJD and enthesopathies of microtraumatic origin with the aim of finding some data which contribute to the knowledge of several biological aspects of this human group. From the results of the comparisons of the Sindou remains with two different medieval samples, a great similarity is deduced for these skeletal markers, but the higher frequency and severity of Achilles tendon enthesopathy in Sindou is a probable index of a higher level of physical stress at this specific localisation.     

Long-term changes in growth and age at maturity of mackerel, Scomber scombrus L., from the North Sea

Mean length and mean weight at age of Atlantic mackerel in the North Sea increased significantly between 1960 and 1979, then, decreased markedly during the 1980s. In contrast, median age at maturity decreased (c. 1-1.5 years) from 1960. Median length at maturity remained stable until the 1980s, when it declined sharply. The significance of these changes is discussed in relation to variation in sea temperature, food availability and stock size. It is speculated that the changes during the 1980s resulted from immigration of western stock mackerel.     

Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave,South Africa: II--single grain data

A sequence of optically stimulated luminescence measurements was made on each of 8,961 grains from three sand samples from Blombos on the southern Cape coast. One sand unit overlay Middle Stone Age deposits in Blombos Cave. The measurement sequence, the single aliquot regenerative dose protocol, was used to obtain values for the total effective radiation dose to which each grain had been exposed since burial. A series of checks was carried out on each grain to ensure that the luminescence signals were reproducible, and that they were derived from quartz. This led to acceptance of less than 5% of the grains. An estimate of the radiation dose for the sand unit was obtained by combining the values using the central age model. In order to use a larger number of grains that might be representative of the sand unit, the radiation dose was also estimated by using the signal from the above grains, combined with the signals from those grains that had lower signals, but nonetheless contributed to the total light sum; this utilised between 9 and 18% of the grains. This enables us to obtain estimates of the ages as 67.3+/-3.8 ka, 65.6+/-2.8 ka and 68.8+/-3.0 ka for the three samples. These values agree with ages obtained using the single aliquot regenerative dose protocol for aliquots composed of several hundred grains.