Comparison of Microbial Biomass,Biodiversity, and Biogeochemistry in Three Contrasting Gold Mine Tailings Deposits

Abstract

An interdisciplinary approach was used to assess the biogeochemistry of three deposits of gold mine tailings in Nopiming Provincial Park, Manitoba, Canada. Each depositional site has developed varying levels of natural revegetation over the past 70 years. Although the tailings are the products of processing similar carbonate-hosted quartz-carbonate shear zones by the same methods, the physical, chemical, and hydrogeological conditions varied among sites. The sample from the barren tailings area at the Central Manitoba site was lower in pH (4.87 ± 1.34) and higher in total sulfur (337 ± 166 μmol/g) and copper (44.5 ± 20.9 μ mol/g) than samples from the other two sites. Microbial activities have impacted the biogeochemical distribution of carbon, sulfur (total, sulfide, sulfate), and iron (total, Fe(II)) in the tailings at all three sites. The microbial communities were distributed throughout the tailings, but the biomass and biodiversity were greatest at the surface in the revegetated (Ogama-Rockland) and partially revegetated (Gunner) tailings. In contrast, the most barren set of tailings (Central Manitoba) had the greatest biomass and biodiversity in the middle layer (15 cm depth), which also had the greatest abundance of metals, anions, and carbon. The distribution of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in the tailings was dependent on both the depth and the individual characteristics of the site. The biomass and biodiversity correlated with the physicochemical conditions, particularly as affected by water movement and hydrology. The primary determinants limiting natural attenuation of the sites may be insufficient calcite buffering, hydrogeology, and the distribution of microbes, rather than a lack of microbes.     

Recolonization Patterns of Ants in a Rehabilitated Lignite Mine in Central Italy: Potential for the Use of Mediterranean Ants as Indicators of Restoration Processes

Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) assemblages were sampled with pitfall traps in three different habitats associated with a rehabilitated mine district and in undisturbed forests in Tuscany, Italy. The four habitats were (1) open fields (3–4 years old); (2) a middle‐age mixed plantation (10 years); (3) an old‐age mixed plantation (20 years); and (4) an oak woodland (40 years) not directly affected by mining activities. The aim of the study was to analyze ant recolonization patterns in order to provide insights on the use of Mediterranean ant fauna as indicators of restoration processes. Species richness and diversity were not significantly different among the four habitats. However, multivariate analyses showed that the assemblages in the different habitats were clearly differentiated, with similarity relationships reflecting a successional gradient among rehabilitated sites. The observed patterns of functional group changes along the gradient broadly accord with those of previous studies in other biogeographic regions. These were (1) a decrease of dominant Dolichoderinae and opportunists; (2) an increase in the proportion of cold‐climate specialists; and (3) the appearance of the Cryptic species in the oldest plantations, with a maximum of abundance in the woodland. In conclusion, the results of our study supported the use of Mediterranean ants as a suitable tool for biomonitoring of restoration processes, and in particular, the functional group approach proved a valuable framework to better interpret local trends in terms of global ecological patterns. Further research is, however, needed in order to obtain a reliable classification of Mediterranean ant functional groups.     

岷江干旱河谷灌丛土壤种子库及其自然更新潜力评估

为了解岷江干旱河谷区灌丛植被土壤种子库的特征及预测灌丛植被自然更新的潜力,利用土壤种子库"萌发法"(每个地段15个2m×2m样方内分土表层、0-5cm土层和5-10cm土层采集土样)及野外植被调查方法(每个地段15个1m×1m的调查样方),研究了岷江干旱河谷3个地段(河谷下游边缘汶川地段、核心茂县地段以及上游边缘松潘地段)阳坡灌丛植被土壤种子库及其与地上植物群落的关系。发现:土壤种子库发芽试验共观察到4274株幼苗,分属于113个物种。土壤种子库密度在102—103ind./m2,物种数在12—23种/0.06m2,边缘地段的土壤种子库平均种子密度(ind./m2)和平均物种数(种/0.06m2)均比中心地段(茂县)高。3个地段土壤种子库和地上植被的组成物种均多为多年生植物,地上灌丛与其土壤种子库的密度及物种数均呈不显著相关性;物种组成的Sorensen相似性指数较低,不足30%,但土壤种子库均比地上植被具有更高的物种丰富度。综合分析表明,岷江干旱河谷灌丛具有依靠土壤种子库实现自然更新的潜力,但由于物种组成相似性较低,现存灌丛植被一旦遭到破坏后,单依靠土壤种子库自然恢复到现存植被是困难的,需要在自然恢复潜力评估基础上积极充分采取人工促进自然恢复的策略,同时也应充分考虑干旱河谷植被及其自然更新潜力的空间异质性。探明岷江干旱河谷区灌丛植被的土壤种子库特征,是认识灌丛植被自然更新潜力的基础,是合理制订该区植被恢复与管理措施的重要依据。     

Effect of species‐counting protocols and the spatial distribution of effort on rarefaction curves in relation to decision making in environmental‐impact assessments

Rarefaction Curves are frequently used in Environmental Impact Assessments to evaluate sampling sufficiency, but without clear guidelines of how to ensure that the assumptions of the methods are met. Infrastructure projects in the Brazilian Amazon and elsewhere often occupy extensive areas in remote locations with difficult access, and random sampling under such conditions is impractical. We tested the influence of sampling unit (sample or individual), and geographic distance between samples on rarefaction curve s, and evaluated the magnitude of errors resulting from the misuse of rarefaction curve in decision making, using frogs from four Amazonian sampling sites. Individual‐based rarefaction curve were steeper than those generated by sample‐based rarefaction curve. Geographic distance influenced the number of exclusive species in a predictable fashion only in one area, and not in the Environmental Impact Assessment site. Misuse of rarefaction curve generated large errors in the identification of vulnerable taxa. Because the rarefaction curve model is sensitive to the assumption of randomness and geographic distance can influence it unpredictably, we suggest that rarefaction curve should generally not be used to estimate sample completeness when making management decisions for environmental licensing purposes.     

Ants as Bioindicators of Natural Succession in Savanna and Riparian Vegetation Impacted by Dredging in the Jequitinhonha River Basin,Brazil

We investigated the response of ant species to landscape and geomorphologic parameters of a long‐term (7–11 years) restoration project in the Jequitinhonha River (Northern State of Minas Gerais, Brazil) margins, previously dredged by a diamond mining company. Geomorphological changes from the dredging were severe and the area is unlikely to be adequately restored, mainly due to the negative effects of flooding. Our hypothesis is that ant species assemblages bioindicate successional stages and soil characteristics. We studied the association of effects from the river's flooding zone, the native vegetation, and sedimentary grain size with that of ant species diversity, abundance, and composition. An ant sampling program was conducted in April 2005, using three methods: baits, pitfall traps, and direct collection. Grain size was measured by sieving. In total, 10,784 ants were sampled, belonging to 7 subfamilies, 24 genera and 45 morphospecies. Ant species richness was greater in the undisturbed savanna area than in the restored habitats, and equivalently greater in the ecotone and intermediate zone habitats than on the river bank, the poorest habitat. Atta sexdens rubropilosa indicated a condition related to small forest remnants having well‐structured soil. On the other hand, ants with a body length of under 0.5 cm (Dorymyrmex pyramicus and Pheidole fallax) predominated in sandy areas, where the majority of the granules were the finest. The lack of organic matter and soil structure for constructing suitable nests may prevent large ants from colonizing such areas, and thus inhibit the advance of natural succession.     

Procedure for Predicting the Trajectory of Species Recovery Based on the Nested Species Pool Information: Dragonflies in a Wetland Restoration Site as a Case Study

Restoration of seminatural habitats in the rural agricultural landscape has become an urgent matter in environmental conservation. We propose here a procedure for predicting the trajectory of species recovery and for specifying the priority of habitat types for restoration of a rural agricultural landscape. We then apply it as a case study to the recovery of dragonfly species in the Azame restoration project that began in 2003 in northern Kyushu, Japan. We examined the nestedness of the regional distribution of dragonflies using a national database on wildlife distribution and listed the recorded species in order of their prevalence in the region. We also conducted a census of adult dragonflies currently found at the restoration site to assess species richness. By comparing these data, we identified species potentially capable of inhabiting the restoration site and, based on their habitat requirements, suggest what type of habitat (e.g., bogs and marshes, ponds, and bodies of slow‐moving water) should be restored preferentially. We observed significant nestedness in the presence–absence matrix for dragonfly species and thus predict that species recovery at the restoration site will follow the regional order of prevalence of the species. The required habitat types did not differ significantly between the currently observed species and the potential species, which indicates that all these habitat types should be restored in the project.     

太岳山油松林火烧迹地恢复初期植物群落结构特征

为研究山西太岳山油松（Pinus tabuliformis）林过火后恢复初期林下草本植物群落结构,以2019年3月太岳山油松林火烧迹地为研究对象,采用群落相似性指数、多样性指数、稳定性系数、TWINSPAN数量分类和DCA排序等方法对群落组成、多样性、类型及稳定性等进行了研究。结果表明：（1）火烧迹地恢复初期以低矮灌木和多年生草本植物为主,其中又以地面芽植物占比最大。优势植物主要为大披针薹草（Carex lanceolata）和多花胡枝子（Lespedeza floribunda）;（2）火烧迹地恢复初期各样地植物群落相似性系数和多样性指数相对较小,均匀度指数较大,但各样地恢复效果不尽相同,样地6和样地7的植物群落各项指标相对大于其他样地;（3）TWINSPAN数量分类将火烧迹地植物群落划分成：I.大披针薹草+南牡蒿（Artemisia eriopoda）+地榆（Sanguisorba officinalis）群丛、II.多花胡枝子+大披针薹草+二色棘豆（Oxytropis bicolor）群丛、III.多花胡枝子+大披针薹草+米口袋（Gueldenstaedtia verna）群丛、IV.多花胡枝子+大披针薹草+荠苨（Adenophora trachelioides）群丛、V.大披针薹草+白莲蒿（Artemisia stechmanniana）+狗娃花（Aster hispidus）群丛、VI.白莲蒿群丛、VII.大披针薹草+狗娃花+野艾蒿（Artemisia lavandulifolia）群丛;（4）DCA排序结果表明,火烧迹地恢复初期植物群落结构单一,沿样地和坡位变化较小,仅区分出样地7和其他样地两大类植物群落。（5）火烧迹地恢复初期植物群落处于不稳定的状态,但各样地间群落稳定性存在一定差别,其中样地1最大,样地5最小。总之,研究区植物群落处于演替初期,各样地间植物群落稳定性较差,多样性和整体相似性较小,但优势种群相似性较高,植物群落结构仍处于动态变化之中。研究揭示了太岳山火烧迹地恢复初期植物群落结构特征,积累了该区域火烧迹地植物群落生态学数据,同时可为该区域生态恢复提供科学依据。     

Ants as ecological indicators of rainforest restoration: Community convergence and the development of an Ant Forest Indicator Index in the Australian wet tropics

Ecosystem restoration can help reverse biodiversity loss, but whether faunal communities of forests undergoing restoration converge with those of primary forest over time remains contentious. There is a need to develop faunal indicators of restoration success that more comprehensively reflect changes in biodiversity and ecosystem function. Ants are an ecologically dominant faunal group and are widely advocated as ecological indicators. We examine ant species and functional group responses on a chronosequence of rainforest restoration in northern Australia, and develop a novel method for selecting and using indicator species. Four sampling techniques were used to survey ants at 48 sites, from grassland, through various ages (1–24 years) of restoration plantings, to mature forest. From principal components analysis of seven vegetation metrics, we derived a Forest Development Index (FDI) of vegetation change along the chronosequence. A novel Ant Forest Indicator Index (AFII), based on the occurrences of ten key indicator species associated with either grassland or mature forest, was used to assess ant community change with forest restoration. Grasslands and mature forests supported compositionally distinct ant communities at both species and functional levels. The AFII was strongly correlated with forest development (FDI). At forest restoration sites older than 5–10 years that had a relatively closed canopy, ant communities converged on those of mature rainforest, indicating a promising restoration trajectory for fauna as well as plants. Our findings reinforce the utility of ants as ecological indicators and emphasize the importance of restoration methods that achieve rapid closed‐canopy conditions. The novel AFII assessed restoration status from diverse and patchily distributed species, closely tracking ant community succession using comprehensive species‐level data. It has wide applicability for assessing forest restoration in a way that is relatively independent of sampling methodology and intensity, and without a need for new comparative data from reference sites.     

Terrestrial Insect Communities and the Restoration of an Industrially Perturbed Landscape: Assessing Success and Surrogacy

Restoration has been acknowledged to be a major pathway by which humans can repair damaged ecosystems. Most of the work to date on terrestrial systems has focused on restoring plant communities, with an assumption that the conditions that lead to more diverse plant communities will also lead to a restoration of insect communities. This, however, has not been proven to be true. Here, we examine the recovery of terrestrial insect communities in naturally recovering and restored sites in response to severe historic pollution in the region of Sudbury, Ontario. We find that the insect communities have not recovered to the same degree as the plant communities. Furthermore, we present directions on how cross‐taxa surrogacy can be useful to further aid the use of insects as indicators of restoration success.     

海南岛以南海域浮游植物群落特征研究

为掌握海南岛以南海域浮游植物群落特征, 1998–1999年对其进行了4个航次的现场调查。经显微镜检, 共鉴定出浮游植物290种(包括23个变种和5个变型)。在此基础上, 作者通过统计和聚类分析方法, 研究了这一区域浮游植物的物种组成、丰度变动和群落结构等特征。结果显示, 海南岛以南海域浮游植物物种丰富, 以硅藻门和甲藻门为主; 物种组成的时空差异显著。其优势种的暖水性、高盐性或广盐性特征明显。冷季以广温种小舟形藻(Navicula subminuscula)占优势, 随气温回升, 暖水性种类优势地位突出。不同季节浮游植物丰度差异小, 以硅藻门丰度占优势, 但与冷季相比, 暖季中甲藻门和蓝藻门丰度明显上升。4月和9月的高丰度中心位于西部海域北部湾湾口附近, 1月和12月则出现在中东部水域。聚类结果显示各浮游植物群落组分无明显的斑块分布特征。群落物种多样性表现为4月和9月高于1月和12月; 群落稳定性以12月份为最差; 中南部水域群落稳定性较差。总之, 海南岛以南海域浮游植物群落具独特的热带开阔海域生物区系特征。冷暖季群落特征有明显差异。海域水文条件对群落特征的影响复杂。     

中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度的地理格局及其与环境因子的关系

物种丰富度的大尺度地理格局及其成因是宏观生态学和生物地理学的中心议题之一。本文利用中国陆栖哺乳动物分布数据, 结合高分辨率的气候、地形、植被等环境信息, 探讨了中国陆栖哺乳动物及主要类群的物种丰富度格局及其影响因素。结果显示, 中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度具有显著的纬度梯度格局, 总体上呈现出由低纬度向高纬度逐渐减少的趋势, 并与宏观地形具有良好的对应关系; 其中, 亚热带、热带西部山区的物种丰富度最高, 而东部平原地区、西北干旱区和青藏高原腹地则是丰富度的低值区。各主要类群的物种丰富度格局既有相似性, 又存在差异。最优线性模型的分析结果显示, 由归一化植被指数(NDVI)、生态系统类型数和气温年较差构成的回归模型对哺乳动物物种丰富度格局的解释率最高, 其中NDVI对模型解释率的贡献最大, 这表明中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度的地理分异受多种环境因素的共同影响, 其中植被生产力起主导作用。各主要类群的最优线性模型显示, 影响物种丰富度格局的主要环境因子因类群而异, 这可能反映了各类群进化历史及生理适应的差异。     

Tradeoffs and thresholds in the effects of nitrogen addition on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: evidence from inner Mongolia Grasslands

Nitrogen (N) deposition is widely considered an environmental problem that leads to biodiversity loss and reduced ecosystem resilience; but, N fertilization has also been used as a management tool for enhancing primary production and ground cover, thereby promoting the restoration of degraded lands. However, empirical evaluation of these contrasting impacts is lacking. We tested the dual effects of N enrichment on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at different organizational levels (i.e., plant species, functional groups, and community) by adding N at 0, 1.75, 5.25, 10.5, 17.5, and 28.0 g N m^?2 yr^?1 for four years in two contrasting field sites in Inner Mongolia: an undisturbed mature grassland and a nearby degraded grassland of the same type. N addition had both quantitatively and qualitatively different effects on the two communities. In the mature community, N addition led to a large reduction in species richness, accompanied by increased dominance of early successional annuals and loss of perennial grasses and forbs at all N input rates. In the degraded community, however, N addition increased the productivity and dominance of perennial rhizomatous grasses, with only a slight reduction in species richness and no significant change in annual abundance. The mature grassland was much more sensitive to N‐induced changes in community structure, likely as a result of higher soil moisture accentuating limitation by N alone. Our findings suggest that the critical threshold for N‐induced species loss to mature Eurasian grasslands is below 1.75 g N m^?2 yr^?1, and that changes in aboveground biomass, species richness, and plant functional group composition to both mature and degraded ecosystems saturate at N addition rates of approximately 10.5 g N m^?2 yr^?1. This work highlights the tradeoffs that exist in assessing the total impact of N deposition on ecosystem function.     

Agricultural development vs biodiversity conservation: the Mediterranean semiarid vegetation in El Ejido (Almería, southeastern Spain)

The development of a greenhouse agriculture in the traditionally impoverished region of Poniente de Almería, on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, has caused an enormous rise in living standards. However, the environmental impact of this badly-planned growth threatens the every dynamics of the exploitation system. A special examination must be made of the use of the three major resources responsible for the functioning of greenhouse production and its impact on the ecosystems and particularly on the vegetation. These resources are: clayey soils, sand from fossil dunes and ground water. While the use of the clayey soils and sand have negative effects on the conservation of ecologically valuable communities found nowhere else in Europe, ground water overexploitation has produced an increase in salinity in most of the aquifers. Of these, sand has been by far the best monitored resource and restoration programmes have been implemented in the extraction zones. This survey deals with the recent evolution of areas where the arto (Maytenus senegalensis subsp. europaeus) and the sabina (Juniperus phoenicea subsp. turbinata) have long been the dominant species, although the presence of the former is nowadays notoriously diminished. The study is based on aerial photographs taken in 1957, 1977 and 1985, together with our own field work. Curiously enough, all this man-made process of degradation has stimulated ornithological diversity. Finally, we propose here some measures which aim to preserve the most important enclaves of these Mediterranean shrub formations, specially those of the arto, since sabina-dominated communities already belong to existing conservation areas.     

Effects of fire intensity on plant species composition of sandstone communities in the Sydney region

Abstract Fire intensity measures the heat output of a fire, and variation in fire intensity has been shown to have many effects on the demography of plant species, although the consequent effects on the floristic composition of communities have rarely been quantified. The effects of variation in fire intensity on the floristic composition of dry sclerophyll vegetation with different fire histories near Sydney was estimated. In particular, differences in species abundance of woodland and shrubland communities subjected to four fire‐intensity classes: unburnt, low intensity (<500 kW m^?1), medium intensity (500–2500 kW m^?1) and high intensity (>2500 kW m^?1) were examined. The samples had a standardized previous fire frequency and season, thus minimizing the effects of other aspects of the fire regime. There was a clear effect of fire intensity on the relative abundances of the vascular plant species, with increasing intensity of the fire producing vegetation that was increasingly different from the unburnt vegetation. This pattern was repeated in both the woodland and shrubland vegetation types, suggesting that it was not an artefact of the experimental conditions. However, the effects of fire intensity on floristic composition were no greater than were the differences between these two similar vegetation types, with variation in fire intensity accounting for only approximately 10% of the floristic variation. Nevertheless, the effects of fire intensity on the abundance of individual species were consistent across taxonomic groups, with the monocotyledon and Fabaceae species being more abundant at higher than lower intensities, the Proteaceae and Rutaceae more abundant at intermediate intensities, and the Epacridaceae more abundant at lower rather than higher intensities. The number of fire‐tolerant species increased with increasing fire intensity, and those fire‐tolerant species present were most abundant in the areas burnt with medium intensity. The number of fire‐sensitive species did not respond to fire intensity, and those species present were most abundant in the areas burnt with low intensity. This suggests that either fire‐sensitive species respond poorly to higher fire intensities or fire‐tolerant species respond poorly to lower fire intensities, perhaps because of differences in seed germination, seedling survival or competition among adults.     

Impacts of Myriophyllum aquaticum invasion in a Mediterranean wetland on plant and macro-arthropod communities

The invasion by alien macrophytes in aquatic ecosystems may produce a strong alteration of the native aquatic vegetation leading to heavy impacts for both plant and faunal native diversity. Myriophyllum aquaticum is an aquatic plant native of Southern America, invasive in several part of the world. We studied the effects of M. aquaticum invasion on plant and macro-arthropod communities in the canals around a protected wetland in the Mediterranean basin. We sampled plant and macro-arthropod communities in 10 transects in invaded and non-invaded tracts of the canals. We assessed the differences in plant and macro-arthropod species richness, diversity, taxonomic diversity and species composition between invaded and non-invaded habitats by means of univariate and multivariate analyses. Our study shows a significant loss of plant diversity between non-invaded to invaded sites, leading to communities numerically and taxonomically impoverished and highly divergent in the species composition. We also detected significant differences in arthropod species composition between invaded and non-invaded transects. Some taxa such as mosquitoes and malacostraca were more frequent in the M. aquaticum-dominated stands. Furthermore, the study shows a positive relation between invaded habitats and juvenile individuals of the invasive alien crayfish Procambarus clarkii.     

青海湖北岸环境梯度上植物群落的生物量与物种多样性及其相互关系

研究在土壤含水量（Ｘ１）、土壤ｐＨ（Ｘ２）、全盐量（Ｘ３）和海拔高程（Ｘ４）等４个主要环境梯度上,分析了青海湖北岸１８个草本植物的生物量、物种多样性（以物工为测度指标）变化规律,以及其基于环境梯度的相互关系,并提出了相关模型。研究结果表明,植物群落地上生物量与物种丰富度之间没有明显的相关性（Ｒ＾２＝０．１０４）,而物种丰富度（Ｙ）与环境因子之间的多元线性回归关系显著,回归模型为：Ｙ＝－８８．２９－     

The response of salt marsh vegetation to tidal reduction caused by the Oosterschelde storm-surge barrier

In 1986 a sluice gate barrier was completed in the mouth of the Oosterschelde estuary. The barrier has been partially or completely closed during 1986 and the first months of 1987. Consequently the high tides were reduced to such a level that the salt marshes were scarcely flooded. Since April 1987 the barrier has been closed on average during two out of 706 high tides a year. Although the barrier allows tidal exchange the tidal flow has been restricted as a result of the reduced width of the mouth of the estuary. This restriction of the tidal flow caused a 26 cm decrease of mean high water in the eastern part of the estuary. As a result the inundation frequencies of the salt marshes decreased.The response of salt-marsh vegetation to this tidal reduction was analyzed using annual records (1982 till 1990) of species composition in 57 permanent plots in two marshes at the southern shore of the estuary. Analysis of the response of individual species to marsh elevation in the pre and the post-barrier situation revealed that most species moved down the marsh elevation gradient. The first axis of an ordination (DCA-1) was significantly negatively related to inundation frequency. Between 1984 and 1990 all plots were displaced towards a significantly higher ordination score, indicating a trend towards a species composition from higher up the marsh. The position of most plots along DCA-1 remained stable until 1985 and started to increase in 1986 or 1987. The vegetation in plots dominated either by Halimione portulacoides or by Spartina anglica, started to change in 1985. This premature change was attributed to frost damage in January 1985. The initially high rate of change along DCA-1 decreased in 1989 and 1990. This would suggest that the vegetation re-equilibrated with the newly established tidal conditions. Further analysis revealed no significant difference in the relation between inundation frequency and sample score along DCA-1 between 1984 and 1990. This corroborates the view that species composition had re-equilibrated with the tidal conditions. Along DCA-2 the samples were displaced towards a significantly higher score as well. The change was attributed to an increase of the perennial Halimione and the annual Suaeda maritima. The annual Atriplex hastata displayed an increase from 1986 till 1988, but strongly declined in 1990. The transient response of this annual was described by DCA-3.During the pre-barrier phase several attempts had been made to predict the vegetation response to tidal reduction. We developed a multivariate model (CCA) with inundation frequency as a constraining factor to describe the relation between inundation frequency and species composition in the pre-barrier phase in 1984. Next we used this model to predict the score of the samples along CCA-1 in the post-barrier phase from the inundation frequencies in 1990. The actual ordination score in 1990 was calculated from the observed species composition. The predicted ordination scores did not differ significantly from the observed ones. In retrospect it is concluded that the response of the vegetation to the reduction of the tides, as far as the fraction of species composition which is related to inundation frequency is concerned, could have been predicted by our model.

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An attack on two fronts: predicting how changes in land use and climate affect the distribution of stream macroinvertebrates

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