New species of Lonchaeidae (Diptera: Schizophora) from Japan and a re‐evaluation of genus Setisquamalonchaea Morge

Three new species of Lonchaeidae are described from material reared from fig syconia in Japan: Silba inubiwa sp. nov., S. ishigaki sp. nov. and S. japonica sp. nov. Based on the taxonomy of these and similar species the boundaries of the genus Silba are re‐evaluated, and, as a result, it is considered that Setisquamalonchaea Morge is synonymous with Silba Macquart. A revised key and generic notes on the tribe Lonchaeini are provided.     

Genome‐wide sequence data suggest the possibility of pollinator sharing by host shift in dioecious figs (Moraceae,Ficus)

The obligate mutualism of figs and fig‐pollinating wasps has been one of the classic models used for testing theories of co‐evolution and cospeciation due to the high species‐specificity of these relationships. To investigate the species‐specificity between figs and fig pollinators and to further understand the speciation process in obligate mutualisms, we examined the genetic differentiation and phylogenetic relationships of four closely related fig‐pollinating wasp species (Blastophaga nipponica, Blastophaga taiwanensis, Blastophaga tannoensis and Blastophaga yeni) in Japan and Taiwan using genome‐wide sequence data, including mitochondrial DNA sequences. In addition, population structure was analysed for the fig wasps and their host species using microsatellite data. The results suggest that the three Taiwanese fig wasp species are a single panmictic population that pollinates three dioecious fig species, which are sympatrically distributed, have large differences in morphology and ecology and are also genetically differentiated. Our results illustrate the first case of pollinator sharing by host shift in the subgenus Ficus. On the other hand, there are strict genetic codivergences between allopatric populations of the two host–pollinator pairs. The possible processes that produce these pollinator‐sharing events are discussed based on the level and pattern of genetic differentiation in these figs and fig wasps.     

Tracking the elusive history of diversification in plant–herbivorous insect–parasitoid food webs: insights from figs and fig wasps

The food webs consisting of plants, herbivorous insects and their insect parasitoids are a major component of terrestrial biodiversity. They play a central role in the functioning of all terrestrial ecosystems, and the number of species involved is mind‐blowing (Nyman et al. 2015 ). Nevertheless, our understanding of the evolutionary and ecological determinants of their diversity is still in its infancy. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Sutton et al. ( 2016 ) open a window into the comparative analysis of spatial genetic structuring in a set of comparable multitrophic models, involving highly species‐specific interactions: figs and fig wasps. This is the first study to compare genetic structure using population genetics tools in a fig‐pollinating wasp (Pleistodontes imperialis sp1) and its main parasitoid (Sycoscapter sp.A). The fig‐pollinating wasp has a discontinuous spatial distribution that correlates with genetic differentiation, while the parasitoid bridges the discontinuity by parasitizing other pollinator species on the same host fig tree and presents basically no spatial genetic structure. The full implications of these results for our general understanding of plant–herbivorous insect–insect parasitoids diversification become apparent when envisioned within the framework of recent advances in fig and fig wasp biology.     

Interactions between pollinator and non‐pollinator fig wasps: correlations between their numbers can be misleading

Ficus and their species–specific pollinator fig wasps represent an obligate plant–insect mutualism, but figs also support a community of non‐pollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) that consist of phytophages and parasitoids or inquilines. We studied interactions between Kradibia tentacularis, the pollinator of a dioecious fig tree species Ficus montana, and an undescribed NPFW Sycoscapter sp. Members of Sycoscapter sp. oviposited 2–4 weeks after pollinator oviposition, when host larvae were present in the figs. No negative correlation was found between the numbers of the two wasp species emerging from figs in a semi‐natural population. However, in experiments where the numbers of pollinator foundresses entering a fig were controlled, Sycoscapter sp. significantly reduced the numbers of pollinator offspring. Consequently, it can be concluded that Sycoscapter sp. is a parasitoid of K. tentacularis (which may also feed on plant tissue). Sycoscapter females concentrate their oviposition in figs that contain more potential hosts, rendering invalid conclusions based on simple correlations of host and natural enemy numbers.     

Non‐pollinating Fig Wasps Decrease Pollinator and Seed Production in Ficus andicola (Moraceae)

Fig trees ( Ficus spp.) and Agaonine fig‐wasps participate in an obligate mutualism. Fig wasps can only develop within fig inflorescences (syconia) and they are the only organisms capable of pollinating fig flowers. Other non‐pollinating wasps that lay eggs by inserting their ovipositors from the outside can also develop in syconia. These parasitic wasps may be parasitoids of either pollinating or other non‐pollinating wasps, or form galls in fig flowers or other tissues. Depending on this interaction, parasitic wasps may have various effects on the production of pollinating wasps and seeds. Wasps in the genus Idarnes, which parasitize New World figs (subgenus Urostigma), have an effect on wasp production but not on seed production. Heterandrium spp., which have short ovipositors and lay on external flowers, are infrequent and no effect on seed production has been documented. In the Colombian Andes, Idarnes spp. and Heterandrium spp. are the most frequent parasites of the Ficus andicola — Pegoscapus sp. mutualism, affecting 62 and 43 percent of syconia, respectively. Controlling for other factors that influence wasp and seed production, such as number of foundresses, syconium size and tree, we found that Idarnes reduced pollinator production by almost half but did not reduce seed production, whereas Heterandrium reduced seed production by 40 percent, and marginally affected pollinator production. Our results provide the first clear documentation of Heterandrium spp. impact on fig seed production. Whether the relative abundance of this genus is a generalized phenomenon in montane forest remains to be determined.     

New data on lance flies (Diptera,Lonchaeidae) associated with figs (Moraceae,Ficus spp.) in Japan and Taiwan,with descriptions of two new species of the genus Silba Macquart

Larvae of the genus Silba Macquart, 1875 were obtained from the syconia of three different species of Ficus growing on the southern islands of Japan and Taiwan. Examination of the emerged adults identified four species, two of which are described as new to science: Silba erecta MacGowan and Arimoto sp. nov. and Silba thunbergii MacGowan and Arimoto sp. nov. Of the four species observed, the larvae of S. erecta, Silba ishigaki MacGowan and Okamoto, 2013 and S. thunbergii feed on the tissue of the fig syconia. Silba inubiwa MacGowan and Okamoto, 2013 was observed as a predator of three fig wasp species. The biogeographic distribution and biological data are provided for each of these fig-associated species.     

Floral constraint resulting from intersexual mimicry in a gynodioecious fig tree

Fig trees (Ficus: Moraceae) are pollinated by female fig wasps (Agaonidae) whose larvae develop inside galled flowers of unusual inflorescences (figs). Most fig trees also support communities of non‐pollinating fig wasps. Figs of different species display great size variation and contain tens to tens of thousands of flowers. Around one‐half the species of fig trees have the gynodioecious breeding system, where female trees have figs that produce seeds and male trees have figs that support development of pollinators. Mutual mimicry between receptive male and female figs ensures that pollinators enter female figs, even though the insects will die without reproducing, but the need to give no sex‐specific cues to the pollinators may constrain differences in size between receptive male and female figs. We compared relationships between inflorescence size and some measures of reproductive success in male and female figs of Ficus montana grown under controlled conditions in the presence of the pollinator Kradibia tentacularis and its main parasitoid Sycoscapter sp. indesc. Female figs that contained more flowers produced more seeds, but male figs did not increase the production of female pollinator K. tentacularis fig wasps in proportion of the flower number. Although more flowers were galled by the pollinators in male figs containing more female flowers, the high larval mortality caused by parasitism and nutritional limitation prevented the increase in the production of adult female offspring. Selection may favor the increase in flower numbers within figs in female plants of F. montana, but contrarily constrain this attribute in male plants.     

Drastic post‐LGM expansion and lack of historical genetic structure of a subtropical fig‐pollinating wasp (Ceratosolen sp. 1) of Ficus septica in Taiwan

The climatic oscillations of the last glacial period have had profound influences on the demography and levels of genetic diversity of extant species. Molecular evidence of glacial effects on temperate species has been well documented, whereas little is known regarding that on subtropical species. Here we present analyses based on partial sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene (1052 bp) and genotypes at 15 microsatellite loci to investigate the historical demography, population structure and ongoing gene flow of an undescribed fig‐pollinating wasp (Ceratosolen sp. 1) of Ficus septica in subtropical Taiwan. Reconstructed historical demography based on the coalescent tree of COI sequences suggests that C. sp. 1 has undergone a drastic population expansion which was tightly coupled with climatic changes since the last glacial maximum (LGM). The magnitude of the population size change was approximately 500‐fold, indicating that the population of this wasp and its host was likely highly compressed during the last glacial period. The lack of significant population differentiation (F_ST < 0.02, for all pairwise F_ST values) may be due to rapid postglacial expansion facilitated by long‐distance dispersal, although a low frequency of first‐generation migrants was detected. Our results clearly demonstrate how recent climatic changes since the LGM and dispersal ability have jointly shaped the genetic composition of a subtropical fig‐pollinating wasp.     

Measuring the discrepancy between fecundity and lifetime reproductive success in a pollinating fig wasp

Lifetime reproductive success in female insects is often egg‐ or time‐limited. For instance in pro‐ovigenic species, when oviposition sites are abundant, females may quickly become devoid of eggs. Conversely, in the absence of suitable oviposition sites, females may die before laying all of their eggs. In pollinating fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), each species has an obligate mutualism with its host fig tree species [Ficus spp. (Moraceae)]. These pro‐ovigenic wasps oviposit in individual ovaries within the inflorescences of monoecious Ficus (syconia, or ‘figs’), which contain many flowers. Each female flower can thus become a seed or be converted into a wasp gall. The mystery is that the wasps never oviposit in all fig ovaries, even when a fig contains enough wasp females with enough eggs to do so. The failure of all wasps to translate all of their eggs into offspring clearly contributes to mutualism persistence, but the underlying causal mechanisms are unclear. We found in an undescribed Brazilian Pegoscapus wasp population that the lifetime reproductive success of lone foundresses was relatively unaffected by constraints on oviposition. The number of offspring produced by lone foundresses experimentally introduced into receptive figs was generally lower than the numbers of eggs carried, despite the fact that the wasps were able to lay all or most of their eggs. Because we excluded any effects of intraspecific competitors and parasitic non‐pollinating wasps, our data suggest that some pollinators produce few offspring because some of their eggs or larvae are unviable or are victims of plant defences.     

高榕雌花期传粉榕小蜂和欺骗性小蜂的繁殖特点

榕树及其专一性传粉榕小蜂组成了动植物界最为经典的协同进化关系,传粉榕小蜂演化出欺骗性是非常罕见的。在雌雄同株的高榕隐头果内,共存着一种传粉榕小蜂Eupristina altissima和一种欺骗性的小蜂Eupristina sp.,两种小蜂在雌花期进入隐头果内繁殖,但有不同的繁殖特点。对比研究了两种小蜂从成虫羽化到产卵和传粉这个阶段的雌蜂个体大小、孕卵量及繁殖差异,结果表明:羽化期两种雌蜂的平均个体小,经飞行小个体的雌蜂易死亡,大个体雌蜂到达接受树,但通过苞片通道,一些个体较大的传粉榕小蜂被夹死导致进入果腔的雌蜂相对小,而欺骗性小蜂易通过苞片以至进入果腔的雌蜂个体较大。两种未产卵雌蜂均表现为个体大者孕卵量较多,但两种雌蜂的平均孕卵量没有差异。即使有充足雌花资源产卵,两种雌蜂均未产完所有卵,产卵后两种雌蜂卵巢中的卵量均显著减少,遗留下的卵量两种小蜂间没有差异。传粉榕小蜂只有部分个体传完所携带花粉,并表现为传粉越成功的雌蜂,产卵越多。存在种内竞争时,两种小蜂的产卵量均减少,传粉榕小蜂的传粉效率也降低。在种间竞争背景下,欺骗性小蜂产卵更成功,传粉榕小蜂的产卵和传粉量均受到极大抑制。研究结果说明雌花期隐头果内传粉榕小蜂只适量利用雌花资源产卵繁殖后代,更有效地传粉繁殖榕树种子,这可能是维持榕-蜂互惠系统稳定共存的重要机制之一;欺骗者稳定存在需降低与传粉者的直接竞争,而欺骗者和传粉者分散在不同果内,甚至是不同的树上繁殖是理想的繁殖策略。     

Parasitism of a pollinator fig wasp: mortalities are higher in figs with more pollinators,but are not related to local densities of figs

相似文献   

First record of an apparently rare fig wasp feeding strategy: obligate seed predation

1. Fig trees require host‐specific agaonid fig wasps for pollination, but their figs also support numerous non‐pollinating fig wasps (NPFW) that gall fig tissues or develop as parasitoids. 2. Ficus microcarpa L. is widely naturalised outside its native range and the most invasive fig tree species. Seed predators are widely used for the biological control of invasive plants, but no obligate seed predatory (as opposed to ovule or fig wall galling) NPFW have been recorded previously from any fig trees. 3. Philotrypesis NPFW are usually regarded as parasitoids or ‘inquilines’ (parasitoids that also eat plant material) of pollinator fig wasps, but the present study provides evidence that Philotrypesis taiwanensis, a NPFW associated with F. microcarpa, is an obligate seed predator: (i) adults emerge from seeds of typical appearance, with a surrounding elaiosome; (ii) it shows no preference for figs occupied by fig wasp species, other than the pollinator; (iii) it only develops in figs that contain pollinated ovules, avoiding figs occupied by an agaonid that fails to pollinate; (iv) larvae are distributed in layers where seeds are concentrated and (v) it has a negative impact on seed but not pollinator offspring numbers. 4. Philotrypesis is a large genus, and further species are likely to be seed predators.     

福州大叶榕隐头果内的小蜂群落结构与多样性

对福州2个样地10株大叶榕果内小蜂群落组成和物种多样性进行研究。全年在两个样地267个隐头果内共收集到小蜂13458只。发现大叶榕隐头果内有7种小蜂,隶属小蜂总科Chalcidoidae中的榕小蜂科Agaonidae、金小蜂科Pteromalidae的隐针榕小蜂亚科Epichrysomallinae、锥尾榕小蜂亚科Otitesellinae和延腹榕小蜂亚科Sycoryctinae;广肩小蜂科Eurytomidae、刻腹小蜂科Ormyridae、姬小蜂科Eulophidae,其中榕小蜂科的Platyscapa coronata是大叶榕唯一的传粉者,传粉方式为主动传粉;非传粉榕小蜂的雄性多型现象普遍。传粉与非传粉小蜂的性比明显具有偏雌现象。传粉小蜂性比为0.19±0.07,非传粉小蜂中Camarothorax bismasculinus小蜂性比为0.36±0.10;Walkerella sp.小蜂性比为0.36±0.22,Sycoscapter sp.小蜂性比为0.31±0.22,Sycophila sp.小蜂性比为0.35±0.13。雄性多型现象可能是导致非传粉小蜂性比提高的原因之一。根据各种榕小蜂发生数量及连续性,可将大叶榕隐头果中的榕小蜂分为常见种和偶见种,Platyscapa coronata、Camarothorax bismasculinus、Walkerella sp.、Sycoscapter sp.和Sycophila sp.为常见种,Omyrus sp.和Aprostocetus sp.为偶见种。偶见种的存在对常见种的数量几乎没有影响,偶见种利用的是榕果内未饱和的一部分资源,也可能是榕果为偶见种的发生预留了空间和资源。首次发现姬小蜂科的昆虫寄生在榕果内,且有一定的种群数量,为姬小蜂科昆虫分类及其生物学、生态学特性研究提供了基础资料。在大叶榕小蜂群落结构中,传粉小蜂和非传粉小蜂的种类和数量呈现明显的季节性。冬-春季(12-翌年5月)榕果内小蜂的种类和数量较多,传粉榕小蜂是优势种,其重要值达到0.42,榕果种子结实率高;夏-秋季(6-11月间)小蜂种类和数量略少,Camarothorax bismasculinus和Sycophila sp.是优势种,其重要值分别为0.56和0.28,而传粉小蜂的重要值仅为0.025,此期大叶榕榕果中几乎找不到传粉小蜂,榕果结实率极低,对大叶榕的繁殖利益有较大的负面影响。雨水和高温等不良气候,可能是导致夏-秋季雄花期榕果内的传粉小蜂数量骤减的主要原因。两个实验样地的小蜂群落结构组成没有明显差异,年变化趋势相似。研究结果为城市绿化和热带雨林生物多样性保护提供科学依据。     

Brood size: a major factor influencing male dimorphism in the non‐pollinating fig wasp Sycobia sp.

• 1 Male polymorphisms have been described in some non‐pollinating fig wasps, as well as in other animals. The proximal basis and the maintenance of alternative male reproductive strategies are either genetic or environmental.
• 2 Here we studied male dimorphism in the non‐pollinating fig wasp Sycobia sp. We conducted experimental manipulations to study the factors influencing offspring male morph allocations and explore a possible basis for the determination and maintenance of male dimorphism in Sycobia sp.
• 3 The results showed that brood size was the major and underlying factor influencing the male morph ratio. When the brood size increases, the wingless male ratio also increases.
• 4 Also, our results indicated that there was no direct maternal control on offspring male morph allocation.
• 5 Male dimorphism in Sycobia sp. probably represents an environmentally determined conditional strategy, which responded to offspring population density at the level of the individual fig.

     

Diversification in the use of resources by Idarnes species: bypassing functional constraints in the fig–fig wasp interaction

Mutualisms such as the fig–fig wasp mutualism are generally exploited by parasites. We demonstrate that amongst nonpollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) parasitic on Ficus citrifolia, a species of Idarnes galls flowers and another species feeds on galls induced by other wasps killing their larvae. The galling wasp inserts its ovipositor through the fig wall into the fig cavity. The ovipositor then follows a sinuous path and is introduced through the stigma and style of the flower. The egg is deposited between the integument and nucellus, in the exact location where the pollinating mutualistic wasp would have laid its egg. Gall induction is a complex process. In contrast, the path followed by the ovipositor of the other species is straightforward: attacking a larva within a developed gall poses different constraints. Shifts in feeding regime have occurred repeatedly in NPFWs. Monitoring traits associated with such repeated evolutionary shifts may help understand underlying functional constraints. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106 , 114–122.     

Ficus racemosa is pollinated by a single population of a single agaonid wasp species in continental South‐East Asia

High specificity in the Ficus‐agaonid wasp mutualism has lead to the assumption of a mostly ‘one‐to‐one’ relationship, albeit with some exceptions. This view has been challenged by new molecular data in recent years, but surprisingly little is known about local and spatial genetic structuring of agaonid wasp populations. Using microsatellite markers, we analysed genetic structuring of Ceratosolen fusciceps, the fig wasp pollinating Ficus racemosa, a fig tree species widely distributed from India to Australia. In sampling stretching from the south of China to the south of Thailand we found evidence for only a single pollinating wasp species in continental South‐East Asian mainland. We found no evidence for the co‐occurrence of cryptic species within our subcontinent sampling zone. We observed no spatial genetic structure within sites and only limited structuring over the whole sampling zone, suggesting that F. racemosa is pollinated by a single population of a single agaonid wasp species all over continental South‐East Asia. An additional sample of wasps collected on F. racemosa in Australia showed clear‐cut genetic differentiation from the Asian continent, suggesting allopatric divergence into subspecies or species. We propose that the frequent local co‐occurrence of sister species found in the literature mainly stems from contact zones between biogeographic regions, and that a single pollinator species over wide areas might be the more common situation everywhere else.     

Mutualism from the inside: coordinated development of plant and insect in an active pollinating fig wasp

Recent studies on the obligate interaction between fig trees and their pollinating agaonid wasps have focused on population aspects and wasp?Cseed exploitation at the level of the inflorescence. Detailed studies on larval and gall development are required to more fully understand how resources are exploited and adaptations fine-tuned by each partner in nursery pollination mutualisms. We studied the larval development of the active pollinating fig wasp, Pegoscapus sp., and the galling process of individual flowers within the figs of its monoecious host, Ficus citrifolia, in Brazil. The pollinator development is strongly dependent on flower pollination. Figs entered by pollen-free wasps were in general more likely to abort. Retained, unpollinated figs had both higher larval mortality and a lower number of wasps. Pegoscapus sp. larvae are adapted to plant development, with two contrasting larval feeding strategies proceeding alongside gall development. The first two larval stages behave as ovary parasites. Later larval stages feed on hypertrophied endosperm. This indicates that a successful galling process relies on endosperm, and also reveals why pollination would be a prerequisite for the production of high-quality galls for this Pegoscapus species.     

Phylogeny and life history evolution of Prodoxus yucca moths (Lepidoptera: Prodoxidae)

Abstract. Yucca moths (Lep., Prodoxidae) are well‐known for their obligate pollination mutualism with yuccas. In addition to the pollinators, yuccas also host many non‐pollinating yucca moths. Here the genus Prodoxus, the non‐pollinating sister group of the pollinators, is revised using morphological and molecular data, their phylogenetic relationships are analysed, and the evolution of host tissue specialization explored. Twenty‐two species are recognized, including nine new species: Prodoxus gypsicolor sp.n. , P. sonorensis sp.n. , P. carnerosanellus sp.n. , P. tamaulipellus sp.n. , P. weethumpi sp.n. , P. tehuacanensis sp.n. , P. californicus sp.n. , P. mapimiensis sp.n. and P. atascosanellus sp.n. Prodoxus y‐inversus Riley, P. coloradensis Riley and P. sordidus Riley are redescribed. The genus Agavenema is synonymized with Prodoxus. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that stalk‐feeding is basal within the group, that there are three separate origins of fruit‐feeding, and one origin of leaf‐mining from a stalk‐feeding ancestor. Although species with different feeding habits often coexist within hosts, the analyses suggest that ecological specialization and diversification within a host only may have occurred within one or possibly two hosts.     

细叶榕榕小蜂群落结构及动态变化

细叶榕为桑科榕属植物,雌雄异株,广泛分布于印度-澳大利亚(Asia-Australasia)榕树植物分布中心区,它既是热带雨林的主要树种,也是庭院和行道绿化的常见树种。通过全年定时、定点、定株观察与采集,对福州2个样地19株细叶榕隐头果内小蜂群落结构及其动态进行研究。全年在两个样地530个隐头果内共收集到小蜂26318只。发现细叶榕隐头果内有17种小蜂,隶属小蜂总科Chalcidoidae中的榕小蜂科(Agaonidae)、隐针榕小蜂亚科(Epichrysomallinae)、金小蜂科(Pteromalidae)、广肩小蜂科(Eurytomidae)和刻腹小蜂科(Ormyridae),其中榕小蜂科的Eupristina verticillata是细叶榕唯一的传粉者,传粉方式为主动传粉,其性比为0.16,具明显偏雌现象;非传粉小蜂中,有翅雄蜂的榕小蜂(Odontofroggatia galili,O.quinifuniculus,O.corneri,Sycophila sp.1,Sycophila sp.2,Meselatus bicolor)的性比(0.46—0.55)较高,无翅雄蜂的榕小蜂(P.taiwanensis,Sycoscaptergajimaru,W.microcarpae)的性比(0.31—0.37)较低,而既具有翅雄蜂又具无翅雄蜂的非传粉榕小蜂(P.okinavensis)性比(0.47)居中。榕小蜂的性比可能与其交配行为策略有关。在细叶榕小蜂群落结构中,传粉小蜂E.verticillata的重要值占绝对优势,非传粉小蜂O.galili和Sycophila sp.2的重要值仅次于传粉小蜂。根据榕小蜂发生数量及连续性,可将细叶榕隐头果中的榕小蜂分为常见种和偶见种,E.verticillata、Odontofroggatia galili、Walkerella microcarpae、Sycophila sp.1、Sycophila sp.2和Philotrypesis okinavensis为常见种,其余11个种为偶见种。传粉小蜂和非传粉小蜂的种类和数量呈现明显的季节性变化。2月至6月期间,每月出现的榕小蜂种类较少,仅3—4种,单果内平均有传粉小蜂48.88只,非传粉小蜂13.64只;7月至翌年1月间,每月出现的榕小蜂种类较多,达6—13种,单果内平均有传粉小蜂24.38只,非传粉小蜂18.89只,表明,7月—翌年1月单果内传粉小蜂数量比较于2—6月极显著降低(P<0.001),而单果内非传粉小蜂数量极显著提高(P=0.001),同时种类也显著增加。雄花期榕小蜂的种类与数量取决于雌花期产卵榕小蜂的种类与数量,而雨量、气温以及雌花期花序果数量对产卵小蜂的数量,以及小蜂产卵行为都可能产生影响。本研究结果可为城市绿化和热带雨林生物多样性保护提供科学依据。     

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for a fig‐pollinating wasp (Ceratosolen sp. 1) of Ficus septica

For an undescribed fig‐pollinating wasp (Ceratosolen sp. 1) of Ficus septica, we isolated 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers from a genomic library partially enriched for GATA and CAG repeats. Polymorphism of these loci was evaluated by genotyping 40 female individuals collected from different fruits of host trees in southern Taiwan. The number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and the observed heterozygosity of each locus ranged from 0.100 to 0.775. These loci would be suitable for further studies concerning population genetics, hybridization and sex ratio adjustment of the coexisting fig‐pollinating wasps.