Combustion characteristics of different parts of corn straw and NO formation in a fixed bed

Experiments with five samples of corn straw were carried out on a one-dimensional bench combustion test rig. The bed temperature distribution and the mass loss of fuel and gas components such as O2, CO, CO2 and NO were measured in the bed. The combustion of corn straw occurred in two stages, ignition front propagation and char oxidation. The average burning rate increased with an increase in the primary air flow until a critical point was reached, beyond which a further increase in the primary air flow resulted in a decreased burning rate. The mean concentration of NO reached a minimum value and then increased with increased primary air flow. The time taken for the drying front to reach the bottom of the bed was 800 s, 700 s, and 500 s; the temperatures in the high bed temperature zones were 900-935 degrees C, 800-850 degrees C and 700-743 degrees C; and the maximum concentrations of NO were 725 ppmv, 1287 ppmv, and 2730 ppmv, for whole corn stalks, hollow corn stalks and flaked corn stalks, respectively. The maximum concentrations of CO and NO were quite different between samples. There was only one peak in the distribution of NO concentration for sample B, but there were two peaks for whole corn stalks and sample A.     

The effect of the particle size of alumina sand on the combustion and emission behavior of cedar pellets in a fluidized bed combustor

A combustion experiment with cedar pellet fuel was carried out in a semi-pilot scale bubbling fluidized bed combustor. The effects of temperature, fluidized velocity, and bed material particle size on the emission of NOx, CO, and CO2 were investigated. The variations in the temperature profile and gas concentration in the vertical and horizontal directions of the combustor were also studied. The results showed that high temperature can improve the combustion efficiency and decrease CO emission. Moreover, increasing the fluidized velocity suppressed CO formation. In addition to temperature and fluidized velocity, the bed material also played an important role during cedar pellet combustion. Coarse bed materials were better than fine materials. In these test runs, the CO emission varied from 20 to 189 ppm, CO2 emission ranged from 5.7% to 19.5%, while NOx emission was quite stable at about 220 ppm.     

Emission performance and combustion efficiency of a conical fluidized-bed combustor firing various biomass fuels

This paper summarizes the results of an experimental study on combustion of three distinct biomass fuels (sawdust, rice husk and pre-dried sugar cane bagasse) in a single fluidized-bed combustor (FBC) with a conical bed using silica sand as the inert bed material. Temperature, CO, NO and O2 concentrations along the combustor height as well as in flue (stack) gas were measured in the experimental tests. The effects of fuel properties and operating conditions (load and excess air) on these variables were investigated. Both CO and NO axial profiles were found to have a maximum whose location divides conventionally the combustor volume into formation (lower) and reduction (upper) regions for these pollutants. Based on CO emission and unburned carbon content in fly ash, the combustion efficiency of the conical FBC was quantified for the selected biomass fuels fired under different operating conditions.     

小兴安岭主要乔、灌木燃烧过程的烟气释放特征

测定了小兴安岭林区凉水林场10种乔木和9种灌木可燃物燃烧过程中释放的CO₂、CO、xHy、SO₂和NO等气体含量,计算了不同可燃物的气体释放量及排放因子.结果表明：乔木和灌木可燃物试样燃烧过程中释放的CO₂、含碳气体总量和5种气体总量的平均值分别为1 277.04和1 149.06 mg·g^-1、1 476.27和1 147.18 mg·g^-1、1 486.21和1 459.67 mg·g^-1,乔木均大于灌木;乔木和灌木的CO、NO和SO₂释放量平均值分别为231.58和282.93 mg·g^-1、3.61和5.03 mg·g^-1、6.32和7.46 mg·g^-1,灌木均大于乔木;乔木和灌木的CO₂、CO排放因子分别为2.8853和2.7718、0.4558和0.2425,乔木大于灌木.     

Co-firing of eucalyptus bark and rubberwood sawdust in a swirling fluidized-bed combustor using an axial flow swirler

Co-combustion of eucalyptus bark (as shredded fuel) and rubberwood sawdust was conducted in a swirling fluidized-bed combustor using a 22-vane axial flow swirler. During the co-firing tests, the fuel blend feed rate was maintained at about 60 kg/h, while the mass/energy fraction of the blended fuels was variable. Excess air supply ranged from 20% to 80% for each fuel option via variation of primary air, while secondary air was injected tangentially into the bed splash zone at a constant flowrate. For comparison, tests with pure rubberwood sawdust at similar operating conditions were performed as well. Temperature and concentrations of O₂, CO and NO were measured along radial and axial directions in the combustor as well as at stack. For all fuel firing options, the radial and axial temperature profiles in the reactor were found to be weakly dependent on operating conditions. However, the gas concentration profiles exhibited apparent effects of fuel properties, excess air and secondary air injection, which resulted in variable emission characteristics of the combustor. For the sawdust energy fraction in the fuel blend of about 0.85, CO and NO emissions can be controlled at acceptable levels (both complying with the national emission limits) by maintaining excess air between 50% and 55%. Under such conditions, the co-combustion of high-moisture eucalyptus bark and rubberwood sawdust in the proposed combustor occurs in a stable regime with high, 99.6%, combustion efficiency.     

Emissions modeling of fluidised bed co-combustion of poultry litter and peat

Gaseous emissions from the fluidised bed co-combustion of 50% w/w chicken litter and peat were monitored and recorded. Emission data were used to create a dispersion model for a proposed site on a poultry farm in Ireland. Variables within the combustion unit influenced both combustion and emission levels of pollutants such as SO(2) and NO(x), CO. Concentrations of atmospheric pollutants decreased with use of the correct ratio between fluidising and secondary air. Dispersion modelling of combustion at a proposed poultry unit predicted that ground level concentrations for the set of emissions data would be below the limits and guidelines set by air quality standards.     

平地无风条件下蒙古栎阔叶床层的火行为Ⅱ.火焰长度和驻留时间影响因子分析与预测模型

以帽儿山地区蒙古栎凋落叶的含水率、载量和床层高度为控制变量,模拟野外凋落叶床层状态,进行了100次平地无风条件下的室内点烧试验,分析含水率、载量和床层高度对火焰长度和驻留时间的影响,并建立了多元线性预测模型.结果表明： 含水率与火焰长度呈极显著线性负相关(P<0.01),与驻留时间的线性关系并不显著(P>0.05);载量、床层高度与火焰长度和驻留时间均呈极显著线性正相关(P<0.01).床层高度与含水率、载量的交互作用对火焰长度有显著影响;含水率与载量、床层高度的交互作用对驻留时间有显著影响.火焰长度预测模型的预测效果较好,能解释火焰长度83.3%的变异,平均绝对误差为7.8 cm,平均相对误差为16.2%;驻留时间预测模型的效果略差,仅能解释驻留时间54%的变异,平均绝对误差为9.2 s,平均相对误差为18.6%.     

Rates of fixation by lightning of carbon and nitrogen in possible primitive atmospheres

A thermochemical-hydrodynamic model of the production of trace species by electrical discharges has been used to estimate the rates of fixation of C and N by lightning in the primitive atmosphere. Calculations for various possible mixtures of CH4, CO2, CO, N2, H2, and H2O reveal that the prime species produced were probably HCN and NO and that the key parameter determining the rates of fixation was the ratio of C atoms to O atoms in the atmosphere. Atmospheres with C more abundant than O have large HCN fixation rates, in excess of 10(17) molecules J-1, but small NO yields. However, when O is more abundant than C, the NO fixation rate approaches 10(17) molecules J-1 while the HCN yield is small. The implications for the evolution of life are discussed.     

The inhibition of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase by the gases carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide: chemical mechanism and physiological significance

The four gases, nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) all readily inhibit oxygen consumption by mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase. This inhibition is responsible for much of their toxicity when they are applied externally to the body. However, recently these gases have all been implicated, to greater or lesser extents, in normal cellular signalling events. In this review we analyse the chemistry of this inhibition, comparing and contrasting mechanism and discussing physiological consequences. The inhibition by NO and CO is dependent on oxygen concentration, but that of HCN and H₂S is not. NO and H₂S are readily metabolised by oxidative processes within cytochrome oxidase. In these cases the enzyme may act as a physiological detoxifier of these gases. CO oxidation is much slower and unlikely to be as physiologically important. The evidence for normal physiological levels of these gases interacting with cytochrome oxidase is equivocal, in part because there is little robust data about their steady state concentrations. A reasonable case can be made for NO, and perhaps CO and H₂S, inhibiting cytochrome oxidase in vivo, but endogenous levels of HCN seem unlikely to be high enough.     

Combustion characteristics of a turbocharged DI compression ignition engine fueled with petroleum diesel fuels and biodiesel

In this study, the combustion characteristics and emissions of two different petroleum diesel fuels (No. 1 and No. 2) and biodiesel from soybean oil were compared. The tests were performed at steady state conditions in a four-cylinder turbocharged DI diesel engine at full load at 1400-rpm engine speed. The experimental results compared with No. 2 diesel fuel showed that biodiesel provided significant reductions in PM, CO, and unburned HC, the NO(x) increased by 11.2%. Biodiesel had a 13.8% increase in brake-specific fuel consumption due to its lower heating value. However, using No. 1 diesel fuel gave better emission results, NO(x) and brake-specific fuel consumption reduced by 16.1% and 1.2%, respectively. The values of the principal combustion characteristics of the biodiesel were obtained between two petroleum diesel fuels. The results indicated that biodiesel may be blended with No. 1 diesel fuel to be used without any modification on the engine.     

Dispersion modelling and measurement of emissions from the co-combustion of meat and bone meal with peat in a fluidised bed

Due to the ban on meat and bone meal (MBM) as an animal feed, combustion with energy recovery has been considered a viable alternative usage for the mounting stocks of MBM. The effects of the co-combustion of MBM and peat on flue gas emissions and fluidisation were studied using a bubbling fluidised bed (BFB) test facility (20 kW). The dispersion of emissions such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCl) and particulates was investigated for a proposed site and compared to the relevant national and international regulations. Concentrations of NO2, CO and HCl were less than 10% of legislative and guideline thresholds while ground level concentrations of SO2 were also below relevant EU and world guidelines. The results indicate the potential for using MBM as a co-fuel with peat in a BFB while maintaining high air quality standards.     

A re-appraisal of wood-fired combustion

Targets for a considerable increase in electricity generation from renewables have been set in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependence. Extensive planting of willow, poplar and alder as energy crops has been planned for power generation plants which use wood as the fuel. The current trend is to use gasification or pyrolysis technology, but alternatively a case may be made for wood combustion, if wood becomes readily available. A range of wood-fired circulating fluidised bed combustion (CFBC) plants, using from 10 to 10,000 dry tonne equivalent (DTE)/day, was examined using the ECLIPSE process simulation package. Various factors, such as wood moisture content, harvest yield, afforestation level (AL) and discounted cash flow rate (DCF) were investigated to test their influence on the efficiency and the economics of the systems. Steam cycle conditions and wood moisture content were found to have the biggest effects on the system efficiencies; DCF and AL had the largest influences on the economics. Plants which could handle more than 500 dry tonnes/day could be economically viable; those using more than 1000 dry tonnes wood/day could be competitive with large-scale, conventional coal-fired plants, if sufficient wood were available.     

Influence of tall oil biodiesel with Mg and Mo based fuel additives on diesel engine performance and emission

The purpose of this study is to investigate influences of tall oil biodiesel with Mg and Mo based fuel additives on diesel engine performance and emission. Tall oil resinic acids were reacted with MgO and MoO(2) stoichiometrically for the production of metal-based fuel additives (combustion catalysts). The metal-based additives were added into tall oil biodiesel (B60) at the rate of 4 micromol/l, 8 micromol/l and 12 micromol/l for preparing test fuels. In general, both of the metal-based additives improved flash point, pour point and viscosity of the biodiesel fuel, depending on the rate of additives. A single cylinder DI diesel engine was used in the tests. Engine performance values did not change significantly with biodiesel fuels, but exhaust emission profile was improved. CO emissions and smoke opacity decreased by 56.42% and by 30.43%, respectively. In general, low NO(x) and CO(2) emissions were measured with the biodiesel fuels.     

模拟氮沉降增加对寒温带针叶林土壤 CO2排放的初期影响

研究大气氮沉降增加情景下北方森林土壤CO2排放通量及其相关控制因子至关重要。在大兴安岭寒温带针叶林区建立了大气氮沉降模拟控制试验,利用静态箱-气相色谱法测定土壤CO2排放通量,同时测定土壤温度、水分、无机氮和可溶性碳含量等相关变量,分析寒温带针叶林土壤CO2排放特征及其主要驱动因子。结果表明:氮素输入没有显著改变森林土壤含水量,但降低了有机层土壤溶解性无机碳(DIC)含量,并增加有机层和矿质层土壤溶解性有机碳(DOC)含量。增氮短期内不影响土壤NH+4-N含量,但促进了土壤NO-3-N的累积。增氮倾向于增加北方森林土壤CO2排放。土壤CO2通量主要受土壤温度驱动,其次为土壤水分和DIC含量。虽然土壤温度整体上控制着土壤CO2通量的季节变化格局,但在生长旺季土壤含水量对其影响更为明显。在分析增氮对土壤CO2通量的净效应时,除了土壤温度和水分外,还要考虑土壤有效碳、氮动态的影响。     

The beneficial effect of small toxic molecules on dormancy alleviation and germination of apple embryos is due to NO formation

Deep dormancy of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) seeds is terminated by a 3-month-long cold stratification. It is expressed by rapid germination of seeds and undisturbed growth of seedlings. However, stimulation of germination of isolated apple embryos is also observed after applying inhibitors of cytochrome c oxidase: nitric oxide (NO) or hydrogen cyanide (HCN) during the first 3–6 h of imbibition of dormant embryos. The aim of this work was to compare the effect of yet another toxic gaseous molecule carbon monoxide (CO) with the effects of HCN and NO on germination of apple embryos and growth and development of young seedlings. We demonstrated that stimulation of germination after short-term pre-treatment with HCN, NO or CO was accompanied by enhanced NO emission from the embryo axes during their elongation. Moreover, similarly high NO production from non-dormant embryos, after cold stratification, was detected. Therefore, we propose that NO may act as signaling molecule in apple embryo dormancy break.     

Decline in microbial activity does not necessarily indicate an end to biodegradation in MSW-biowaste: a case study

The aim of this study was to examine whether a decline in microbial activity (i.e., CO(2) output) during the biodegradation of municipal solid waste (MSW) indicated an end to biodegradation and the appearance of a stable, final product. As the organic fraction of MSW was biodegraded in an 8 clamp Cambridge Batch System composter, CO(2) output declined by 50% and moisture content at the end of the process was <20%. Levels of biodegradable material remaining in the product were determined by the dynamic respiration index (DRI) method but despite 151 days in the composting system biodegradable material was still present at levels (24130mgO(2)/kgdry matter (DM)) which exceeded draft EU biowaste directive (2001) guidelines (10,000mgO(2)/kgDM). Further laboratory based incubations demonstrated that microbial activity and hence biodegradation of organic material could be restarted if moisture levels were adjusted suggesting that dehydration limited microbial activity. Low levels of microbial activity alone did not therefore indicate and end to biodegradation, biodegradable material was not exhausted and the final product was not stable which has serious implications for its end-use.     

Effect of fluidising velocity on the combustion of rice husk in a bench-scale fluidised bed combustor for the production of amorphous rice husk ash

This study was focused on investigating the optimum fluidising velocity during the combustion of rice husk in a bench-scale fluidised bed combustor (ID 210mm) to obtain low carbon ash in the amorphous form. When all other parameters are held constant, the optimum fluidizing velocity aids in almost complete combustion, thereby releasing the entrapped carbon for further conversion. This results in ash with consistently low carbon content (less than 2wt%). The range of fluidising velocities investigated was from as low as 1.5U(mf) to as high as 8U(mf). It was found that the optimum fluidising velocity was approximately 3.3U(mf) as the mixing of rice husk with the bed was good with a high degree of penetration into the sand bed. The resulting ash retained its amorphous form with low residual carbon content (at 2.88wt%) and minimal sand contamination as shown by the X-ray diffraction analysis.     

择伐对小兴安岭针阔叶混交林土壤呼吸的影响

利用LI-8100土壤CO₂排放通量全自动测量系统,测定了黑龙江省带岭林业局东方红林场不同采伐强度林地的土壤表面CO₂通量和土壤表层10 cm处的温度和湿度,研究了择伐作业后林地土壤表面CO₂通量变化及影响因素.结果表明：伐后林分土壤温度和湿度与土壤表面CO₂通量季节变化呈较好的相关关系,解释了土壤呼吸的68%～98%;择伐作业使林地表面CO₂通量增加,年均增幅在7.17%～26.89%;采伐强度与土壤表面CO₂通量呈显著的二次相关关系（R²=0.961）.土壤有机质含量和采伐强度是导致择伐后土壤表面CO₂通量变化的主要影响因子.     

内、外源性硫化氢在脂多糖所致大鼠急性肺损伤中的作用

目的：探讨内、外源性硫化氢（H2S）在脂多糖（LPS）所致大鼠急性肺损伤（ALI）中的作用并初探其机制。方法：将120只SD大鼠随机分为对照组、IPS组（经气管内滴注LPS复制ALI模型）、NaHS＋LPS组和炔丙基甘氨酸（PPG）＋LPS组。给药后4h或8h处死动物,测定肺系数;光镜观察肺组织形态学改变;化学法检测血浆H2S、NO和CO含量、肺组织丙二醛（MDA）含量、胱硫醚-γ-裂解酶（CSE）、诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）和血红素加氧酶（HO）活性以及支气管肺泡灌洗液（BALF）中中性粒细胞（PMN）数目和蛋白含量的变化;用免疫组织化学法检测肺组织iNOS、HO-1蛋白表达。再将血浆H2S含量与上述指标进行相关性分析。结果：气管内滴注LPS可引起肺组织明显的形态学改变;肺系数和肺组织MDA含量增加;BALF中PMN数目和蛋白含量增加;血浆H2S含量和肺组织CSE活性下降;肺组织iNOS活性、HO活性和iNOS蛋白表达、HO-1蛋白表达增强,血浆NO含量、CO含量增加。预先给予NaHS可显著减轻LPS所致上述指标的改变;而预先给予PIG可加重LPS所致肺损伤,使BALF中PMN数目和蛋白含量、血浆NO含量、肺组织iNOS活性和iNOS蛋白表达进一步增加,但对血浆CO含量、肺组织HO活性和HO-1蛋白表达无明显影响。HS含量与CSE活性、血浆CO含量、肺组织HO-1活性呈正相关（r值=0．945—0．987,P均〈0．01）;与其他指标呈负相关（r值=-0．994～-0．943,P均〈0．01）。结论：H2S／CSE体系的下调在LPS所致大鼠Ⅲ的发病学中有一定作用,内、外源性H2S具有抗LPS所致Au的作用,该作用可能与其抗氧化效应、减轻PMN所致肺过度的炎症反应以及下调NO／iNOS体系、上调CO／HO—1体系有一定关系。     

The role of ash particles in the bed agglomeration during the fluidized bed combustion of rice straw

In this paper, the effects of fluidization velocity, bed temperature and fuel feeding rate on the defluidization time and agglomerate fraction in the fluidized bed combustion of rice straw were studied. The fuel ash, necks in agglomerates and coating layers of bed particles were studied by means of the scanning electron microscope, coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS). Results showed that the stickiness of bed particles induced by coating layers is the direct reason for bed defluidization. The alkali metals such as K and Na mainly exist in the outer layer of rice straw particles. During combustion the high temperature can cause the alkali species melting and coating the surfaces of ash particles. Consequently, ash particles become sticky and tend to adhere to the surfaces of bed particles. The large-sized ash particles may act as the necks in the formation of agglomerates. The small-sized ash particles may contribute to the formation of coating layers.