Learning and selection

Are learning processes selection processes? This paper takes a slightly modified version of the account of selection presented in Hull et al. (Behav Brain Sci 24:511–527, 2001) and asks whether it applies to learning processes. The answer is that although some learning processes are selectional, many are not. This has consequences for teleological theories of mental content. According to these theories, mental states have content in virtue of having proper functions, and they have proper functions in virtue of being the products of selection processes. For some mental states, it is plausible that the relevant selection process is natural selection, but there are many for which it is not plausible. One response to this (due to David Papineau) is to suggest that the learning processes by which we acquire non-innate mental states are selection processes and can therefore confer proper functions on mental states. This paper considers two ways in which this response could be elaborated, and argues that neither of them succeed: the teleosemanticist cannot rely on the claim that learning processes are selection processes in order to justify the attribution of proper functions to beliefs.     

Representation in the genome and in other inheritance systems

There is ongoing controversy as to whether the genome is a representing system (Sterelny K., Smith K.C. and Dickson M. 1996. Biol. Philos. 11: 377–403; Griffiths P.E. 2001. Philos. Sci. 68: 394–412). Although it is widely recognised that DNA carries information, both correlating with and coding for various outcomes, neither of these implies that the genome has semantic properties like correctness or satisfaction conditions (Godfrey-Smith P. 2002. In: Wolenski J. and Kajania-Placek K. (eds), In the Scope of Logic, Methodology, and the Philosophy of Sciences, Vol. II. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 387–400). Here a modified version of teleosemantics is applied to the genome to show that it does indeed have semantic properties – there is representation in the genome. The account differs in three respects from previous attempts to apply teleosemantics to genes. It emphasises the role of the consumer of representations (in addition to their mode of production). It rejects the standard assumption that genetic representation can be used to explain the course of an organism’s development. And it identifies the explanatory role played by representational properties of the genome. A striking consequence of this account is that other inheritance systems could also be representational. Thus, a version of the parity thesis is accepted (Griffiths P.E. 2001. Philos. Sci. 68: 394–412). However, the criteria for being an inheritance system are demanding, so semantic properties are not ubiquitous.     

Causal Efficacy and the Analysis of Variance

The causal impacts of genes and environment on any one biological trait are inextricably entangled, and consequently it is widely accepted that it makes no sense in singleton cases to privilege either factor for particular credit. On the other hand, at a population level it may well be the case that one of the factors is responsible for more variation than the other. Standard methodological practice in biology uses the statistical technique of analysis of variance to measure this latter kind of causal efficacy. In this paper, I argue that: 1) analysis of variance is in fact badly suited to this role; and 2) a superior alternative definition is available that readily reconciles both the entangled-singleton and the population-variation senses of causal efficacy.     

Students' cellular and molecular explanations of genetic phenomena

Genetic concepts are assigned to three principal levels of organisation: macroscopic level, microscopic level, and submicroscopic level. In order to probe Israeli students' understanding at each level, and to gain a sense of their ability to connect ideas and concepts across different levels, we asked three different types of question. Two of the question types ask students to make a bridge between levels by asking them to explain a phenomenon at one level using concepts and processes from a different level. For example, to explain the appearance of phenotypic traits (macroscopic level) using concepts like genes or chromosomes (microscopic level). One question dealt with the molecular level only. We investigated three populations: 9^th graders, 12^th graders, and pre-service teachers. Based on our findings we suggest improvements both in terms of teaching methods and curriculum content.     

8-mm Cassette Films in the Teaching of Biology

Textbook of Theoretical Botany Volume 4 R. C. McLEAN and W. R. IVIMEY-COOK 595 pp, illustrated. London: Longman, 1973. £12-00. Reviewed by Eric Caulton

Introduction to Human and Social Biology DON MACKEAN and BRIAN JONES 282 pp, illustrated. London: John Murray, 1975. £2.15. Reviewed by Charles Brady

The Educational Use of Living Organisms: A Source Book P. J. KELLY and J. D. WRAY 195 pp, illustrated. London: English Universities Press, for the Schools Council, 1975. £3.50. Reviewed by Tessa Davey

Handbook on the Laboratory Mouse CHARLES G. CRISPENS 267 pp. Springfield, fll.: Charles C. Thomas, 1975. $9.75. Reviewed by D. Lovell

Photosynthesis M. A. TRIBE, M. R. ERAUT and R. K. SNOOK 77 pp, illustrated. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. £500. Reviewed by J. I. Williams

Bone and Biomineralization Studies in Biology No. 53 K. SIMKISS 59 pp. London: Edward Arnold, 1975. £2.30 boards, £1.15 paper. Reviewed by Colin Stoneman

Chromosome Hierarchy: An Introduction to the Biology of the Chromosome BERNARD JOHN and KENNETH R. LEWIS 171 pp, illustrated. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. £7.00 boards, £3.50 paper. Reviewed by R. A. E. Tilney-Bassett

Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary Approach JOHN ALCOCK 547 pp, illustrated. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1975. £6.60. Reviewed by S. M. Evans

Animal Behaviour Readings from Scientific American, edited by THOMAS EISNER and EDWARD O. WILSON 339 pp, illustrated. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman &; Co., 1975. £7.15 boards, £3.95 paper. Reviewed by S. M. Evans

Biological Anthropology Readings from Scientific American, edited by SOLOMON H. KATZ 494 pp, illustrated. San Francisco and Reading: W. H. Freeman &; Co., 1975. £8.30 boards, £3.50 paper. Reviewed by Paul Rogers

Investigations in Behaviour and Elementary Neurobiology F. M. SPEED and J. J. B. SMITH 184 pp, illustrated. London: Macmillan Education, 1975. £2.20. Reviewed by John A. Barker

Fisheries, Resources of the Sea and their Management DAVID CUSHING 87 pp. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. £3.50. Reviewed by W. H. Dowdeswell

The Food and Health of Western Man JAMES L. MOUNT 270 pp. London: Charles Knight &; Co., 1975. £5.50. Reviewed by Erica F. Wheeler

The Oxford Book of Trees Text by A. R. CLAPHAM Illustrated by BARBARA E. NICHOLSON 216 pp. London: Oxford University Press, 1975. £4.95. Reviewed by Vicky W. Smith

Oxford Biology Readers London: Oxford University Press 44 Differentiation in Higher Plants, D. H. Northcote. 1974. 60p. 49 Spore Liberation in Cryptogams, C. T. Ingold. 1974. 30p. 52 Insect Flight, J. W. S. Pringle. 1975. 30p. 57 Disease in Higher Plants, R. K. S. Wood. 1974. 60p. 77 The Golgi Apparatus, G. M. W. Cook. 1975. 30p. 78 The Productivity of the Sea, D. H. Cushing. 1975. 30p. 81 The Plasma Membrane, JA. Lucy. 1975. 30p. These booklets form useful additions to the popular Oxford Biology series. Reviewed by David Tomley

Environmental Education Activities Manual WILLIAM B. STAPP and DOROTHY A. COX 6 books, Michigan: Stapp and Cox, 1974. $10 the set. Reviewed by David R. George

Soils and other Growth Media A. W. FLEGMANN and R. A. T. GEORGE 170 pp. London: Macmillan, 1975. £2.50. Reviewed by M. J. Bazin

Lectures on the Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants CLAUDE BERNARD 288 pp, illustrated. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1974. $12.95. Reviewed by Diana Manuel     

Causal parenthood and the ethics of gamete donation

According to the causal theory of parenthood, people incur parental obligations by causing children to exist. Proponents of the causal theory often argue that gamete donors have special obligations to their genetic offspring. In response, many defenders of current gamete donation practices would reject the causal theory. In particular, they may invoke the ‘too many parents problem’: many people who causally contribute to the existence of children – for instance, fertility doctors – do not thereby incur parental obligations. This article argues that the conclusions commonly drawn by causal theorists, and by their critics, are premature. Causal theorists have a promising response to the too many parents problem. This response, however, defuses the moral concern that many causal theorists have raised about gamete donation. A similar point, it is argued, applies to Rivka Weinberg's ‘Hazmat Theory’.     

Causal structure and hierarchies of models

Economics prefers complete explanations: general over partial equilibrium, microfoundational over aggregate. Similarly, probabilistic accounts of causation frequently prefer greater detail to less as in typical resolutions of Simpson’s paradox. Strategies of causal refinement equally aim to distinguish direct from indirect causes. Yet, there are countervailing practices in economics. Representative-agent models aim to capture economic motivation but not to reduce the level of aggregation. Small structural vector-autoregression and dynamic stochastic general-equilibrium models are practically preferred to larger ones. The distinction between exogenous and endogenous variables suggests partitioning the world into distinct subsystems. The tension in these practices is addressed within a structural account of causation inspired by the work of Herbert Simon’s, which defines cause with reference to complete systems adapted to deal with incomplete systems and piecemeal evidence. The focus is on understanding the constraints that a structural account of causation places on the freedom to model complex or lower-order systems as simpler or higher-order systems and on to what degree piecemeal evidence can be incorporated into a structural account.     

脑电双频指数监测技术及其临床应用

适宜的麻醉深度是保证患者的生命安全和创造良好手术条件的关键。脑电双频指数（bispectralindex,BIS）是用于监测镇静程度的一种新方法,自从临床应用以来它已得到多方面关注和研究,本文就其概念、原理及临床应用等方面进行综述。     

Visual exploration of alternative taxonomies through concepts

A graphical user interface is presented that allows users of taxonomic data to explore concept relationships between conflicting but related taxonomic classifications.Ecological analyses that use taxonomic metadata depend on accurate naming of specimens and taxa, and if the metadata involves several taxonomies, care has to be taken to match concepts between them. To perform this accurately requires expert-defined concept relationships, which are more complex yet more representative than the simple one-to-one mappings found through simple name matching, and can accommodate nomenclatural changes and differences in classification technique (cf ‘lumpers’ versus ‘splitters’). In the SEEK-Taxon (Scientific Environment for Ecological Knowledge) project we aim to help users of taxonomic datasets untangle and understand these relationships through a prototype visual interface which graphically displays these relationship structures, allowing users to comprehend such information and more accurately name their data.     

Causal mechanisms of evolution and the capacity for niche construction

Ernst Mayr proposed a distinction between “proximate”, mechanistic, and “ultimate”, evolutionary, causes of biological phenomena. This dichotomy has influenced the thinking of many biologists, but it is increasingly perceived as impeding modern studies of evolutionary processes, including study of “niche construction” in which organisms alter their environments in ways supportive of their evolutionary success. Some still find value for this dichotomy in its separation of answers to “how?” versus “why?”questions about evolution. But “why is A?” questions about evolution necessarily take the form “how does A occur?”, so this separation is illusory. Moreover, the dichotomy distorts our view of evolutionary causality, in that, contra Mayr, the action of natural selection, driven by genotype-phenotype-environment interactions which constitute adaptations, is no less “proximate” than the biological mechanisms which are altered by naturally selected genetic variants. Mayr’s dichotomy thus needs replacement by more realistic, mechanistic views of evolution. From a mechanistic viewpoint, there is a continuum of adaptations from those evolving as responses to unchanging environmental pressures to those evolving as the capacity for niche construction, and intermediate stages of this can be identified. Some biologists postulate an association of “phenotypic plasticity” (phenotype-environment covariation with genotype held constant) with capacity for niche construction. Both “plasticity” and niche construction comprise wide ranges of adaptive mechanisms, often fully heritable and resulting from case-specific evolution. Association of “plasticity” with niche construction is most likely to arise in systems wherein capacity for complex learning and behavioral flexibility have already evolved.     

Bayesian Inference for the Causal Effect of Mediation

Summary We propose a nonparametric Bayesian approach to estimate the natural direct and indirect effects through a mediator in the setting of a continuous mediator and a binary response. Several conditional independence assumptions are introduced (with corresponding sensitivity parameters) to make these effects identifiable from the observed data. We suggest strategies for eliciting sensitivity parameters and conduct simulations to assess violations to the assumptions. This approach is used to assess mediation in a recent weight management clinical trial.     

脑电双频指数监测技术及其临床应用

适宜的麻醉深度是保证患者的生命安全和创造良好手术条件的关键。脑电双频指数(bispectralindex,BIS)是用于监测镇静程度的一种新方法,自从临床应用以来它已得到多方面关注和研究,本文就其概念、原理及临床应用等方面进行综述。     

Causal interactions between the cerebral cortex and the autonomic nervous system

Mental states such as stress and anxiety can cause heart disease.On the other hand,meditation can improve cardiac performance.In this study,the heart rate variability,directed transfer function and corrected conditional entropy were used to investigate the effects of mental tasks on cardiac performance,and the functional coupling between the cerebral cortex and the heart.When subjects tried to decrease their heart rate by volition,the sympathetic nervous system was inhibited and the heart rate decreased.When subjects tried to increase their heart rate by volition,the parasympathetic nervous system was inhibited and the sympathetic nervous system was stimulated,and the heart rate increased.When autonomic nervous system activity was regulated by mental tasks,the information flow from the post-central areas to the pre-central areas of the cerebral cortex increased,and there was greater coupling between the brain and the heart.Use of directed transfer function and corrected conditional entropy techniques enabled analysis of electroencephalographic recordings,and of the information flow causing functional coupling between the brain and the heart.     

Causal Regularities in the Biological World of Contingent Distributions

Former discussions of biological generalizations have focused on the question of whether there are universal laws of biology. These discussions typically analyzed generalizations out of their investigative and explanatory contexts and concluded that whatever biological generalizations are, they are not universal laws. The aim of this paper is to explain what biological generalizations are by shifting attention towards the contexts in which they are drawn. I argue that within the context of any particular biological explanation or investigation, biologists employ two types of generations. One type identifies causal regularities exhibited by particular kinds of biological entities. The other type identifies how these entities are distributed in the biological world.     

Methodologic Implications of the Precautionary Principle: Causal Criteria

Applying the Precautionary Principle to public health requires a re-evaluation of the methods of inference currently used to make claims about disease causation from epidemiologic and other forms of scientific evidence. In current thinking, a well-established, near-certain causal relationship implies highly consistent statistically significant results across many different studies, large relative risk estimates, extensive understanding of biological mechanisms and dose-response relationships, positive prevention trial results, a clear temporal relationship between cause and effect, and other conditions spelled out in terms of the widely-used causal criteria. The Precautionary Principle, however, states that preventive measures are to be taken when cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. What evidentiary conditions, as reflected in the causal criteria, will be certain enough to warrant precautionary preventive action? This paper argues that minimum evidentiary requirements for causation need to be articulated if the Precautionary Principle is to be successfully incorporated into public health practice. Two precautionary changes to criteria-based methods of causal inference are examined: reducing the number of criteria and weakening the rules of inference accompanying the criteria. Such changes point in the direction of identifying minimum evidentiary conditions, but would be premature without better understanding how well current methods of causal inference work.     

Causal analysis of the temperature impact on deep-sea biodiversity

The deep sea comprises more than 90% of the ocean; therefore, understanding the controlling factors of biodiversity in the deep sea is of great importance for predicting future changes in the functioning of the ocean system. Consensus has recently been increasing on two plausible factors that have often been discussed as the drivers of deep‐sea species richness in the contexts of the species‐energy and physiological tolerance hypotheses: (i) seafloor particulate organic carbon (POC) derived from primary production in the euphotic zone and (ii) temperature. Nonetheless, factors that drive deep-sea biodiversity are still actively debated potentially owing to a mirage of correlations (sign and magnitude are generally time dependent), which are often found in nonlinear, complex ecological systems, making the characterization of causalities difficult. Here, we tested the causal influences of POC flux and temperature on species richness using long-term palaeoecological datasets derived from sediment core samples and convergent cross mapping, a numerical method for characterizing causal relationships in complex systems. The results showed that temperature, but not POC flux, influenced species richness over 10³–10⁴-year time scales. The temperature–richness relationship in the deep sea suggests that human-induced future climate change may, under some conditions, affect deep-sea ecosystems through deep-water circulation changes rather than surface productivity changes.     

Causal analysis of CpG suppression in the Mycoplasma genome

Some bacterial genomes are known to have low CpG dinucleotide frequencies. While their causes are not clearly understood, the frequency of CpG is suppressed significantly in the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium, but not in that of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. We compared orthologous gene pairs of the two closely related species to analyze CpG substitution patterns between these two genomes. We also divided genome sequences into three regions: protein-coding, noncoding, and RNA-coding, and obtained the CpG frequencies for each region for each organism. It was found that the observed/expected ratio of CpG dinucleotides is low in both the protein-coding and noncoding regions; while that ratio is in the normal range in the RNA-coding region. Our results indicate that CpG suppression of the Mycoplasma genome is not caused by (1) biased usage amino acid; (2) biased usage of synonymous codon; or (3) methylation effects by the CpG methyltransferase in the genomes of their hosts. Instead, we consider it likely that a certain global pressure, such as genome-wide pressure for the advantages of DNA stability or replication, has the effect of decreasing CpG over the entire genome, which, in turn, resulted in the biased codon usage.     

因果推断中的混杂控制

因果分析中混杂的控制是一个难题，本文探讨总体平均效应估计中混杂的控制问题，给出充分控制子集的识别方法。