Activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome Complex is Not Required for Stress-Induced Death of Pancreatic Islets

Loss of pancreatic beta cells is a feature of type-2 diabetes. High glucose concentrations induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis of islet cells in vitro. ER stress, oxidative stress and high glucose concentrations may also activate the NLRP3 inflammasome leading to interleukin (IL)-1β production and caspase-1 dependent pyroptosis. However, whether IL-1β or intrinsic NLRP3 inflammasome activation contributes to beta cell death is controversial. This possibility was examined in mouse islets. Exposure of islets lacking functional NLRP3 or caspase-1 to H₂O_2, rotenone or thapsigargin induced similar cell death as in wild-type islets. This suggests that oxidative or ER stress do not cause inflammasome-mediated cell death. Similarly, deficiency of NLRP3 inflammasome components did not provide any protection from glucose, ribose or gluco-lipotoxicity. Finally, genetic activation of NLRP3 specifically in beta cells did not increase IL-1β production or cell death, even in response to glucolipotoxicity. Overall, our results show that glucose-, ER stress- or oxidative stress-induced cell death in islet cells is not dependent on intrinsic activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.     

Endoplasmic reticulum stress sensitizes pancreatic beta cells to interleukin-1β-induced apoptosis via Bim/A1 imbalance

We have recently shown that the crosstalk between mild endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and low concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1β exacerbates beta cell inflammatory responses via the IRE1α/XBP1 pathway. We presently investigated whether mild ER stress also sensitizes beta cells to cytokine-induced apoptosis. Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA)-induced ER stress enhanced the IL-1β apoptosis in INS-1E and primary rat beta cells. This was not prevented by XBP1 knockdown (KD), indicating the dissociation between the pathways leading to inflammation and cell death. Analysis of the role of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins in cytokine-induced apoptosis indicated a central role for the pro-apoptotic BH3 (Bcl-2 homology 3)-only protein Bim (Bcl-2-interacting mediator of cell death), which was counteracted by four anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma-2) proteins, namely Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, Mcl-1 and A1. CPA+IL-1β-induced beta cell apoptosis was accompanied by increased expression of Bim, particularly the most pro-apoptotic variant, small isoform of Bim (Bim_S), and decreased expression of A1. Bim silencing protected against CPA+IL-1β-induced apoptosis, whereas A1 KD aggravated cell death. Bim inhibition protected against cell death caused by A1 silencing under all conditions studied. In conclusion, mild ER stress predisposes beta cells to the pro-apoptotic effects of IL-1β by disrupting the balance between pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins. These findings link ER stress to exacerbated apoptosis during islet inflammation and provide potential mechanistic targets for beta cell protection, namely downregulation of Bim and upregulation of A1.     

JNK1 Protects against Glucolipotoxicity-Mediated Beta-Cell Apoptosis

Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction is central to type 2 diabetes pathogenesis. Prolonged elevated levels of circulating free-fatty acids and hyperglycemia, also termed glucolipotoxicity, mediate β-cell dysfunction and apoptosis associated with increased c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) activity. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and oxidative stress are elicited by palmitate and high glucose concentrations further potentiating JNK activity. Our aim was to determine the role of the JNK subtypes JNK1, JNK2 and JNK3 in palmitate and high glucose-induced β-cell apoptosis. We established insulin-producing INS1 cell lines stably expressing JNK subtype specific shRNAs to understand the differential roles of the individual JNK isoforms. JNK activity was increased after 3 h of palmitate and high glucose exposure associated with increased expression of ER and mitochondrial stress markers. JNK1 shRNA expressing INS1 cells showed increased apoptosis and cleaved caspase 9 and 3 compared to non-sense shRNA expressing control INS1 cells when exposed to palmitate and high glucose associated with increased CHOP expression, ROS formation and Puma mRNA expression. JNK2 shRNA expressing INS1 cells did not affect palmitate and high glucose induced apoptosis or ER stress markers, but increased Puma mRNA expression compared to non-sense shRNA expressing INS1 cells. Finally, JNK3 shRNA expressing INS1 cells did not induce apoptosis compared to non-sense shRNA expressing INS1 cells when exposed to palmitate and high glucose but showed increased caspase 9 and 3 cleavage associated with increased DP5 and Puma mRNA expression. These data suggest that JNK1 protects against palmitate and high glucose-induced β-cell apoptosis associated with reduced ER and mitochondrial stress.     

Uncoupling Proteostasis and Development in Vitro with a Small Molecule Inhibitor of the Pancreatic Endoplasmic Reticulum Kinase,PERK

Loss-of-function mutations in EIF2AK3, encoding the pancreatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase, PERK, are associated with dysfunction of the endocrine pancreas and diabetes. However, to date it has not been possible to uncouple the long term developmental effects of PERK deficiency from sensitization to physiological levels of ER unfolded protein stress upon interruption of PERK modulation of protein synthesis rates. Here, we report that a selective PERK inhibitor acutely deregulates protein synthesis in freshly isolated islets of Langerhans, across a range of glucose concentrations. Acute loss of the PERK-mediated strand of the unfolded protein response leads to rapid accumulation of misfolded pro-insulin in cultured beta cells and is associated with a kinetic defect in pro-insulin processing. These in vitro observations uncouple the latent role of PERK in beta cell development from the regulation of unfolded protein flux through the ER and attest to the importance of the latter in beta cell proteostasis.     

Effects of multiple stressors on pancreatic human islets proteome reveal new insights into the pathways involved

Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction is an early hallmark of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Among the potentially critical factors that cause β-cell dysfunction are cytokine attack, glucotoxicity, induction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or mitochondria stress. However, the exact molecular mechanism underlying β-cell's inability to maintain glucose homeostasis under severe stresses is unknown. This study used proinflammatory cytokines, thapsigargin, and rotenone in the presence of high concentration glucose to mimicking the conditions experienced by dysfunctional β-cells in human pancreatic islets, and profiled the alterations to the islet proteome with TMT-based proteomics. The results were further verified with label-free quantitative proteomics. The differentially expressed proteins under stress conditions reveal that immune related pathways are mostly perturbed by cytokines, while the respiratory electron transport chains and protein processing in ER pathways by rotenone. Thapsigargin together with high glucose induces dramatic increases of proteins in lipid synthesis and peroxisomal protein import pathways, with energy metabolism and vesicle secretion related pathways downregulated. High concentration glucose, on the other hand, alleviated complex I inhibition induced by rotenone. Our results contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular events involved in β-cell dysfunction.     

ATP-Citrate Lyase Reduction Mediates Palmitate-induced Apoptosis in Pancreatic Beta Cells

Elevated extracellular lipids, such as the free fatty acid palmitate, can induce pancreatic beta cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and apoptosis, thereby contributing to the initiation and progression of type 2 diabetes. ATP-citrate lyase (ACLY), a key enzyme in cellular lipid production, was identified as a palmitate target in a proteomic screen. We investigated the effects of palmitate on ACLY activity and phosphorylation and its role in beta cell ER stress and apoptosis. We demonstrated that treatment of MIN6 cells, mouse islets and human islets with palmitate reduced ACLY protein levels. These in vitro results were validated by our finding that islets from high fat-fed mice had a significant decrease in ACLY, similar to that previously observed in type 2 diabetic human islets. Palmitate decreased intracellular acetyl-CoA levels to a similar degree as the ACLY inhibitor, SB-204990, suggesting a reduction in ACLY activity. ACLY inhibitors alone were sufficient to induce CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologues protein (CHOP)-dependent ER stress and caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. Similarly, even modest shRNA-mediated knockdown of ACLY caused a significant increase in beta cell apoptosis and ER stress. The effects of chemical ACLY inhibition and palmitate were non-additive and therefore potentially mediated by a common mechanism. Indeed, overexpression of ACLY prevented palmitate-induced beta cell death. These observations provide new evidence that ACLY expression and activity can be suppressed by exogenous lipids and demonstrate a critical role for ACLY in pancreatic beta cell survival. These findings add to the emerging body of evidence linking beta cell metabolism with programmed cell death.     

Stress-induced dissociations between intracellular calcium signaling and insulin secretion in pancreatic islets

In healthy pancreatic islets, glucose-stimulated changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) provide a reasonable reflection of the patterns and relative amounts of insulin secretion. We report that [Ca²⁺]_i in islets under stress, however, dissociates with insulin release in different ways for different stressors. Islets were exposed for 48 h to a variety of stressors: cytokines (low-grade inflammation), 28 mM glucose (28G, glucotoxicity), free fatty acids (FFAs, lipotoxicity), thapsigargin (ER stress), or rotenone (mitochondrial stress). We then measured [Ca²⁺]_i and insulin release in parallel studies. Islets exposed to all stressors except rotenone displayed significantly elevated [Ca²⁺]_i in low glucose, however, increased insulin secretion was only observed for 28G due to increased nifedipine-sensitive calcium-channel flux. Following 3–11 mM glucose stimulation, all stressors substantially reduced the peak glucose-stimulated [Ca²⁺]_i response (first phase). Thapsigargin and cytokines also substantially impacted aspects of calcium influx and ER calcium handling. Stressors did not significantly impact insulin secretion in 11 mM glucose for any stressor, although FFAs showed a borderline reduction, which contributed to a significant decrease in the stimulation index (11:3 mM glucose) observed for FFAs and also for 28G. We also clamped [Ca²⁺]_i using 30 mM KCl + 250 μM diazoxide to test the amplifying pathway. Only rotenone-treated islets showed a robust increase in 3–11 mM glucose-stimulated insulin secretion under clamped conditions, suggesting that low-level mitochondrial stress might activate the metabolic amplifying pathway. We conclude that different stressors dissociate [Ca²⁺]_i from insulin secretion differently: ER stressors (thapsigargin, cytokines) primarily affect [Ca²⁺]_i but not conventional insulin secretion and ‘metabolic’ stressors (FFAs, 28G, rotenone) impacted insulin secretion.     

DJ-1 Protects Pancreatic Beta Cells from Cytokine- and Streptozotocin-Mediated Cell Death

A hallmark feature of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus is the progressive dysfunction and loss of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells, and inflammatory cytokines are known to trigger beta cell death. Here we asked whether the anti-oxidant protein DJ-1 encoded by the Parkinson’s disease gene PARK7 protects islet cells from cytokine- and streptozotocin-mediated cell death. Wild type and DJ-1 knockout mice (KO) were treated with multiple low doses of streptozotocin (MLDS) to induce inflammatory beta cell stress and cell death. Subsequently, glucose tolerance tests were performed, and plasma insulin as well as fasting and random blood glucose concentrations were monitored. Mitochondrial morphology and number of insulin granules were quantified in beta cells. Moreover, islet cell damage was determined in vitro after streptozotocin and cytokine treatment of isolated wild type and DJ-1 KO islets using calcein AM/ethidium homodimer-1 staining and TUNEL staining. Compared to wild type mice, DJ-1 KO mice became diabetic following MLDS treatment. Insulin concentrations were substantially reduced, and fasting blood glucose concentrations were significantly higher in MLDS-treated DJ-1 KO mice compared to equally treated wild type mice. Rates of beta cell apoptosis upon MLDS treatment were twofold higher in DJ-1 KO mice compared to wild type mice, and in vitro inflammatory cytokines led to twice as much beta cell death in pancreatic islets from DJ-1 KO mice versus those of wild type mice. In conclusion, this study identified the anti-oxidant protein DJ-1 as being capable of protecting pancreatic islet cells from cell death induced by an inflammatory and cytotoxic setting.     

Glucose-modulated tyrosine nitration in beta cells: Targets and consequences

Hyperglycemia, key factor of the pre-diabetic and diabetic pathology, is associated with cellular oxidative stress that promotes oxidative protein modifications. We report that protein nitration is responsive to changes in glucose concentrations in islets of Langerhans and insulinoma beta cells. Alterations in the extent of tyrosine nitration as well as the cellular nitroproteome profile correlated tightly with changing glucose concentrations. The target proteins we identified function in protein folding, energy metabolism, antioxidant capacity, and membrane permeability. Nitration of heat shock protein 60 in vitro was found to decrease its ATP hydrolysis and interaction with proinsulin, suggesting a mechanism by which protein nitration could diminish insulin secretion. This was supported by our finding of a decrease in stimulated insulin secretion following glycolytic stress in cultured cells. Our results reveal that protein tyrosine nitration may be a previously unrecognized factor in beta-cell dysfunction and the pathogenesis of diabetes.     

Maternal Immunization Affects In Utero Programming of Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes

Maternal immunization with oxidized lipoproteins prior to pregnancy protects against atherogenic in utero programming by gestational hypercholesterolemia and enhances beneficial lymphocyte-dependent immune responses in offspring. To determine whether in utero programming and immunomodulation also affect insulin resistance (IR) and type 2 diabetes, we investigated the effects of immunization on glucose and insulin responses in LDL receptor-deficient mice fed regular or 60% sucrose diets, as well as in offspring fed 0.5% cholesterol or 60% sucrose diets. IR was assessed by fasting glucose and insulin levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, glucose clamps, pancreatic immunohistochemistry and plasma free fatty acid concentrations. Immunizations improved glucose responses in both genders and protected both immunized mice and their offspring against IR and type 2 diabetes. Protection occurred even under euglycemic conditions, but was greatest in obese males exposed to very obesogenic/diabetogenic conditions. Hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamps confirmed that maternal immunization protected mainly by reducing IR, but pancreatic immunocytochemistry also indicated some protection against beta cell damage. Maternal immunization was associated with marked regulation in offspring of 4 genes relevant to diabetes and 19 genes of importance for oxidative stress, as well as increased hepatic activities of key antioxidant enzymes. These findings establish that targeted immunomodulation may be used to protect immunized subjects and their offspring against IR and type 2 diabetes, and thus to reduce cardiovascular risk. They also support the notion that in utero programming influences offspring disease not by a single mechanism, but by multiple systemic effects.     

Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase expression is activated in the pancreatic endocrine cells by diabetes and its blockade improves glucose-stimulated insulin secretion

Type 2 diabetes is associated with an inflammatory phenotype in the pancreatic islets. We previously demonstrated that proinflammatory cytokines potently activate the tryptophan/kynurenine pathway (TKP) in INS-1 cells and in normal rat islets. Here we examined: (1) the TKP enzymes expression in the diabetic GK islets; (2) the TKP enzymes expression profiles in the GK islets before and after the onset of diabetes; (3) The glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in vitro in GK islets after KMO knockdown using specific morpholino-oligonucleotides against KMO or KMO blockade using the specific inhibitor Ro618048; (4) The glucose tolerance and GSIS after acute in vivo exposure to Ro618048 in GK rats. We report a remarkable induction of the kmo gene in GK islets and in human islets exposed to proinflammatory conditions. It occurred prominently in beta cells. The increased expression and activity of KMO reflected an acquired adaptation. Both KMO knockdown and specific inhibitor Ro618048 enhanced GSIS in vitro in GK islets. Moreover, acute administration of Ro618048 in vivo improved glucose tolerance, GSIS and basal blood glucose levels in GK rats. These results demonstrate that targeting islet TKP is able to correct defective GSIS. KMO inhibition could represent a potential therapeutic strategy for type 2 diabetes.     

The Batten disease gene CLN3 confers resistance to endoplasmic reticulum stress induced by tunicamycin

Mutations in CLN3 gene cause juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (JNCL or Batten disease), an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by the accumulation of ceroid lipofuscin within lysosomes. The function of the CLN3 protein remains unclear and is presumed to be related to Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. To investigate the function of CLN3 in the ER stress signaling pathway, we measured proliferation and apoptosis in cells transfected with normal and mutant CLN3 after treatment with the ER stress inducer tunicamycin (TM). We found that overexpression of CLN3 was sufficient in conferring increased resistance to ER stress. Wild-type CLN3 protected cells from TM-induced apoptosis and increased cell proliferation. Overexpression of wild-type CLN3 enhanced expression of the ER chaperone protein, glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), and reduced expression of the proapoptotic protein CCAAT/-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP). In contrast, overexpression of mutant CLN3 or siRNA knockdown of CLN3 produced the opposite effect. Together, our data suggest that the lack of CLN3 function in cells leads to a failure of management in the response to ER stress and this may be the key deficit in JNCL that causes neuronal degeneration.     

Inhibition of the nuclear factor-κB pathway prevents beta cell failure and diet induced diabetes in Psammomys obesus

Background

High doses of anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin and salicylates, improve glucose metabolism in insulin resistant and type 2 diabetic patients. It has also been shown that the glucose lowering effect is related to the unspecific ability of these drugs to inhibit inhibitor kinaseβ (IKKβ). In this study we have investigated the effect of a selective IKKβ-inhibitor on beta cell survival and the prevention of diet induced type 2 diabetes in the gerbil Psammomys obesus (P. obesus).

Methodology/Principal Findings

P. obesus were fed a diabetes inducing high energy diet for one month in the absence or presence of the IKKβ-inhibitor. Body mass, blood glucose, HbA_1C, insulin production and pancreatic insulin stores were measured. The effects on beta cell survival were also studied in INS-1 cells and primary islets. The cells were exposed to IL-1β and subsequently reactive oxygen species, insulin release and cell death were measured in the absence or presence of the IKKβ-inhibitor. In primary islets and beta cells, IL-1β induced the production of reactive oxygen species, reduced insulin production and increased beta cell death, which were all reversed by pre-treatment with the IKKβ-inhibitor. In P. obesus the IKKβ-inhibitor prevented the development of hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia, and maintained pancreatic insulin stores with no effect on body weight.

Conclusions/Significance

Inhibition of IKKβ activity prevents diet-induced diabetes in P. obesus and inhibits IL-1β induced reactive oxygen species, loss of insulin production and beta cell death in vitro.     

Protective Unfolded Protein Response in Human Pancreatic Beta Cells Transplanted into Mice

Background

There is great interest about the possible contribution of ER stress to the apoptosis of pancreatic beta cells in the diabetic state and with islet transplantation.

Methods and Findings

Expression of genes involved in ER stress were examined in beta cell enriched tissue obtained with laser capture microdissection (LCM) from frozen sections of pancreases obtained from non-diabetic subjects at surgery and from human islets transplanted into ICR-SCID mice for 4 wk. Because mice have higher glucose levels than humans, the transplanted beta cells were exposed to mild hyperglycemia and the abnormal environment of the transplant site. RNA was extracted from the LCM specimens, amplified and then subjected to microarray analysis. The transplanted beta cells showed an unfolded protein response (UPR). There was activation of many genes of the IRE-1 pathway that provide protection against the deleterious effects of ER stress, increased expression of ER chaperones and ERAD (ER-associated protein degradation) proteins. The other two arms of ER stress, PERK and ATF-6, had many down regulated genes. Downregulation of EIF2A could protect by inhibiting protein synthesis. Two genes known to contribute to apoptosis, CHOP and JNK, were downregulated.

Conclusions

Human beta cells in a transplant site had UPR changes in gene expression that protect against the proapoptotic effects of unfolded proteins.     

Inhibition of Renal Glucose Reabsorption: A Novel Strategy for Achieving Glucose Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

ObjectiveTo review the renal handling of glucose and the role of inhibition of a sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT2) in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).MethodsWe review the published data about (1) the filtration and reabsorption of glucose by the kidneys in normal subjects and patients with diabetes; (2) the deleterious effects of long-term elevation of plasma glucose levels on muscle and hepatic insulin sensitivity and beta cell function (that is, glucotoxicity); (3) the effect of inhibiting the SGLT2 transporter on the induction of glycosuria, glycemic control, insulin resistance, and beta cell dysfunction in animals and humans with diabetes; and (4) the safety of SGLT2 inhibition as a therapeutic modality to treat human T2DM.ResultsStudies in animal models of diabetes document the efficacy of the SGLT2 inhibitors in inducing glycosuria, decreasing both fasting and postprandial glucose levels, augmenting beta cell function, and enhancing hepatic and muscle insulin sensitivity. In human T2DM, short-term studies with dapagliflozin (12 weeks) and sergliflozin (2 weeks) have confirmed the efficacy of these agents in improving glycemic control. Excessive urinary electrolyte or water loss, plasma electrolyte disturbances, and hypoglycemia were not observed.ConclusionSGLT2 inhibitors represent a promising approach to the treatment of T2DM. They have the potential to be used as monotherapy, as well as in combination with all approved antidiabetic agents. Because their mechanism of action is independent of the severity of beta cell dysfunction or insulin resistance, efficacy should not decline with progressive beta cell failure or in the presence of severe insulin resistance. (Endocr Pract. 2008;14:782-790)     

Anticancer compound Oplopantriol A kills cancer cells through inducing ER stress and BH3 proteins Bim and Noxa

Oplopantriol-A (OPT) is a natural polyyne from Oplopanax horridus. We show here that OPT preferentially kills cancer cells and inhibits tumor growth. We demonstrate that OPT-induced cancer cell death is mediated by excessive endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Decreasing the level of ER stress either by inactivating components of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway or by expression of ER chaperone protein glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) decreases OPT-induced cell death. We show that OPT induces the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and the stabilization of unstable proteins, suggesting that OPT functions, at least in part, through interfering with the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. In support of this, inhibition of protein synthesis significantly decreased the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins, which is correlated with significantly decreased OPT-induced ER stress and cell death. Finally, we show that OPT treatment significantly induced the expression of BH3-only proteins, Noxa and Bim. Knockdown of both Noxa and Bim significantly blocked OPT-induced cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that OPT is a potential new anticancer agent that induces cancer cell death through inducing ER stress and BH3 proteins Noxa and Bim.