p62 links the autophagy pathway and the ubiqutin–proteasome system upon ubiquitinated protein degradation

The ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy are two distinct and interacting proteolytic systems. They play critical roles in cell survival under normal conditions and during stress. An increasing body of evidence indicates that ubiquitinated cargoes are important markers of degradation. p62, a classical receptor of autophagy, is a multifunctional protein located throughout the cell and involved in many signal transduction pathways, including the Keap1–Nrf2 pathway. It is involved in the proteasomal degradation of ubiquitinated proteins. When the cellular p62 level is manipulated, the quantity and location pattern of ubiquitinated proteins change with a considerable impact on cell survival. Altered p62 levels can even lead to some diseases. The proteotoxic stress imposed by proteasome inhibition can activate autophagy through p62 phosphorylation. A deficiency in autophagy may compromise the ubiquitin–proteasome system, since overabundant p62 delays delivery of the proteasomal substrate to the proteasome despite proteasomal catalytic activity being unchanged. In addition, p62 and the proteasome can modulate the activity of HDAC6 deacetylase, thus influencing the autophagic degradation.     

Specific SKN-1/Nrf stress responses to perturbations in translation elongation and proteasome activity

SKN-1, the Caenorhabditis elegans Nrf1/2/3 ortholog, promotes both oxidative stress resistance and longevity. SKN-1 responds to oxidative stress by upregulating genes that detoxify and defend against free radicals and other reactive molecules, a SKN-1/Nrf function that is both well-known and conserved. Here we show that SKN-1 has a broader and more complex role in maintaining cellular stress defenses. SKN-1 sustains expression and activity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and coordinates specific protective responses to perturbations in protein synthesis or degradation through the UPS. If translation initiation or elongation is impaired, SKN-1 upregulates overlapping sets of cytoprotective genes and increases stress resistance. When proteasome gene expression and activity are blocked, SKN-1 activates multiple classes of proteasome subunit genes in a compensatory response. SKN-1 thereby maintains UPS activity in the intestine in vivo under normal conditions and promotes survival when the proteasome is inhibited. In contrast, when translation elongation is impaired, SKN-1 does not upregulate proteasome genes, and UPS activity is then reduced. This indicates that UPS activity depends upon presence of an intact translation elongation apparatus; and it supports a model, suggested by genetic and biochemical studies in yeast, that protein synthesis and degradation may be coupled processes. SKN-1 therefore has a critical tissue-specific function in increasing proteasome gene expression and UPS activity under normal conditions, as well as when the UPS system is stressed, but mounts distinct responses when protein synthesis is perturbed. The specificity of these SKN-1-mediated stress responses, along with the apparent coordination between UPS and translation elongation activity, may promote protein homeostasis under stress or disease conditions. The data suggest that SKN-1 may increase longevity, not only through its well-documented role in boosting stress resistance, but also through contributing to protein homeostasis.     

PTK2/FAK regulates UPS impairment via SQSTM1/p62 phosphorylation in TARDBP/TDP-43 proteinopathies

ABSTRACT

TARDBP/TDP-43 (TAR DNA binding protein) proteinopathies are a common feature in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), and Alzheimer disease (AD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying TARDBP-induced neurotoxicity are largely unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that TARDBP proteinopathies induce impairment in the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS), as evidenced by an accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and a reduction in proteasome activity in neuronal cells. Through kinase inhibitor screening, we identified PTK2/FAK (PTK2 protein tyrosine kinase 2) as a suppressor of neurotoxicity induced by UPS impairment. Importantly, PTK2 inhibition significantly reduced ubiquitin aggregates and attenuated TARDBP-induced cytotoxicity in a Drosophila model of TARDBP proteinopathies. We further identified that phosphorylation of SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1) at S403 (p-SQSTM1 [S403]), a key component in the autophagic degradation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins, is increased upon TARDBP overexpression and is dependent on the activation of PTK2 in neuronal cells. Moreover, expressing a non-phosphorylated form of SQSTM1 (SQSTM1^S403A) significantly repressed the accumulation of insoluble poly-ubiquitinated proteins and neurotoxicity induced by TARDBP overexpression in neuronal cells. In addition, TBK1 (TANK binding kinase 1), a kinase that phosphorylates S403 of SQSTM1, was found to be involved in the PTK2-mediated phosphorylation of SQSTM1. Taken together, our data suggest that the PTK2-TBK1-SQSTM1 axis plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of TARDBP by regulating neurotoxicity induced by UPS impairment. Therefore, targeting the PTK2-TBK1-SQSTM1 axis may represent a novel therapeutic intervention for neurodegenerative diseases with TARDBP proteinopathies.Abbreviations: ALP: macroautophagy/autophagy lysosomal pathway; ALS: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; ATXN2: ataxin 2; BafA1: bafilomycin A₁; cCASP3: cleaved caspase 3; CSNK2: casein kinase 2; FTLD: frontotemporal lobar degeneration; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; OPTN: optineurin; PTK2/FAK: PTK2 protein tyrosine kinase 2; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TARDBP/TDP-43: TAR DNA binding protein; TBK1: TANK binding kinase 1; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; UPS: ubiquitin-proteasome system.     

Proteasome inhibition down-regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase phosphorylation and function

Endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) function is fundamentally modulated by protein phosphorylation. In particular, phosphorylation of serine 1179 (bovine)/1177 (human) by Akt has been shown to be the central mechanism of eNOS regulation. Here we revealed a novel role of proteasome in controlling eNOS serine 1179 phosphorylation and function. Rather than affecting eNOS turnover, proteasomal inhibition specifically dephosphorylated eNOS serine 1179, leading to decreased enzymatic activity. Blocking protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) by okadaic acid or PP2A knockdown restored eNOS serine 1179 phosphorylation and activity in proteasome-inhibited cells. Although total PP2A expression and activity in cells were not affected by proteasome inhibitors, proteasomal inhibition induced PP2A ubiquitination and ubiquitinated PP2A translocated from cytosol to membrane. Further biochemical analyses demonstrated that eNOS associated with PP2A on cell membranes. Proteasomal inhibition markedly enhanced PP2A association to eNOS, and this increase of PP2A dephosphorylated eNOS and its upstream kinase Akt. Taken together, these studies identified a novel pathway in which proteasome modulates eNOS phosphorylation by inducing intracellular PP2A translocation.     

Docosahexaenoic acid inhibition of inflammation is partially via cross-talk between Nrf2/heme oxygenase 1 and IKK/NF-κB pathways

We examined the underlying mechanisms involved in n-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) inhibition of inflammation in EA.hy926 cells. The present results demonstrated that pretreatment with DHA (50 and 100 μM) inhibited tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) protein, mRNA expression and promoter activity. In addition, TNF-α-stimulated inhibitory kappa B (IκB) kinase (IKK) phosphorylation, IκB phosphorylation and degradation, p65 nuclear translocation, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and DNA binding activity were attenuated by pretreatment with DHA. DHA triggered early-stage and transient reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and significantly increased the protein expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), induced nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) translocation to the nucleus and up-regulated antioxidant response element (ARE)-luciferase reporter activity. Moreover, DHA inhibited Nrf2 ubiquitination and proteasome activity. DHA activated Akt, p38 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, and specific inhibitors of respective pathways attenuated DHA-induced Nrf2 nuclear translocation and HO-1 expression. Transfection with HO-1 siRNA knocked down HO-1 expression and partially reversed the DHA-mediated inhibition of TNF-α-induced p65 nuclear translocation and ICAM-1 expression. Importantly, we show for the first time that HO-1 plays a down-regulatory role in NF-κB nuclear translocation, and inhibition of Nrf2 ubiquitination and proteasome activity are involved in increased cellular Nrf2 level by DHA. In this study, we show that HO-1 plays a down-regulatory role in NF-κB nuclear translocation and that the protective effect of DHA against inflammation is partially via up-regulation of Nrf2-mediated HO-1 expression and inhibition of IKK/NF-κB signaling pathway.     

Evaluation of ubiquitinated proteins by proteomics reveals the role of the ubiquitin proteasome system in the regulation of Grp75 and Grp78 chaperone proteins during intestinal inflammation

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is the major pathway of intracellular protein degradation and may be involved in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel diseases or irritable bowel syndrome. UPS specifically degrades proteins tagged with an ubiquitin chain. We aimed to identify polyubiquitinated proteins during inflammatory response in intestinal epithelial HCT‐8 cells by a proteomic approach. HCT‐8 cells were incubated with interleukin 1β, tumor necrosis factor‐α, and interferon‐γ for 2 h. Total cellular protein extracts were separated by 2D gel electrophoresis and analyzed by an immunodetection using antiubiquitin antibody. Differential ubiquitinated proteins were then identified by LC‐ESI MS/MS. Seven proteins were differentially ubiquitinated between control and inflammatory conditions. Three of them were chaperones: Grp75 and Hsc70 were more ubiquitinated (p < 0.05) and Grp78 was less ubiquitinated (p < 0.05) under inflammatory conditions. The results for Grp75 and Grp78 were then confirmed in HCT‐8 cells and in 2‐4‐6‐trinitrobenzen sulfonic acid induced colitis in rats mimicking inflammatory bowel disease by immunoprecipitation. No difference was observed in irritable bowel syndrome like model. In conclusion, we showed that a proteomic approach is suitable to identify ubiquitinated proteins and that UPS‐regulated expression of Grp75 and Grp78 may be involved in inflammatory response. Further studies should lead to the identification of ubiquitin ligases responsible for Grp75 and Grp78 ubiquitination.     

Regulation of telomeric repeat binding factor 1 binding to telomeres by casein kinase 2-mediated phosphorylation

Telomere maintenance is essential for continued cell proliferation and chromosome stability. Telomeres are maintained by telomerase and a collection of associated proteins. The telomeric protein telomeric repeat binding factor 1 (TRF1) negatively regulates telomere length by inhibiting access of telomerase at telomere termini. Here we report that TRF1 interacts with the beta subunit of casein kinase 2 (CK2) and serves as a substrate for CK2. CK2-mediated phosphorylation is required for the efficient telomere binding of TRF1 in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of CK2 by the CK2 inhibitor 5,6-dichloro-1-beta-d-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole decreased the ability of TRF1 to bind telomeric DNA. The resulting telomere-unbound form of TRF1 was then ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. Partial knockdown of CK2 by small interfering RNA resulted in removal of TRF1 from telomeres and subsequent degradation of TRF1. Mapping of the CK2 target site identified threonine 122 as a substrate in TRF1. A threonine to alanine change at this position led to a diminished DNA binding due to reduced dimerization of TRF1. In addition, phosphorylation of threonine 122 seemed critical for TRF1-mediated telomere length control. Our findings suggest that CK2-mediated phosphorylation of TRF1 plays an important role in modulating telomere length homeostasis by determining the levels of TRF1 at telomeres.     

Regulation of proteasome activity in health and disease

The ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) is the primary selective degradation system in the nuclei and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, required for the turnover of myriad soluble proteins. The hundreds of factors that comprise the UPS include an enzymatic cascade that tags proteins for degradation via the covalent attachment of a poly-ubiquitin chain, and a large multimeric enzyme that degrades ubiquitinated proteins, the proteasome. Protein degradation by the UPS regulates many pathways and is a crucial component of the cellular proteostasis network. Dysfunction of the ubiquitination machinery or the proteolytic activity of the proteasome is associated with numerous human diseases. In this review we discuss the contributions of the proteasome to human pathology, describe mechanisms that regulate the proteolytic capacity of the proteasome, and discuss strategies to modulate proteasome function as a therapeutic approach to ameliorate diseases associated with altered UPS function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ubiquitin–Proteasome System. Guest Editors: Thomas Sommer and Dieter H. Wolf.     

Prostaglandin J2 alters pro-survival and pro-death gene expression patterns and 26 S proteasome assembly in human neuroblastoma cells

Many neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by two pathological hallmarks: progressive loss of neurons and occurrence of inclusion bodies containing ubiquitinated proteins. Inflammation may be critical to neurodegeneration associated with ubiquitin-protein aggregates. We previously showed that prostaglandin J2 (PGJ2), one of the endogenous products of inflammation, induces neuronal death and the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins into distinct aggregates. We now report that temporal microarray analysis of human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH revealed that PGJ2 triggered a "repair" response including increased expression of heat shock, protein folding, stress response, detoxification and cysteine metabolism genes. PGJ2 also decreased expression of cell growth/maintenance genes and increased expression of apoptotic genes. Over time pro-death responses prevailed over pro-survival responses, leading to cellular demise. Furthermore, PGJ2 increased the expression of proteasome and other ubiquitin-proteasome pathway genes. This increase failed to overcome PGJ2 inhibition of 26 S proteasome activity. Ubiquitinated proteins are degraded by the 26 S proteasome, shown here to be the most active proteasomal form in SK-N-SH cells. We demonstrate that PGJ2 impairs 26 S proteasome assembly, which is an ATP-dependent process. PGJ2 perturbs mitochondrial function, which could be critical to the observed 26 S proteasome disassembly, suggesting a cross-talk between mitochondrial and proteasomal impairment. In conclusion neurotoxic products of inflammation, such as PGJ2, may play a role in neurodegenerative disorders associated with the aggregation of ubiquitinated proteins by impairing 26 S proteasome activity and inducing a chain of events that culminates in neuronal cell death. Temporal characterization of these events is relevant to understanding the underlying mechanisms and to identifying potential early biomarkers.