Astrocyte Mitochondrial Mechanisms of Ischemic Brain Injury and Neuroprotection

Research on ischemic brain injury has established a central role of mitochondria in neuron death. Astrocytes are also damaged by ischemia, although the participation of mitochondria in their injury is ill defined. As astrocytes are responsible for neuronal metabolic and trophic support, astrocyte dysfunction will compromise postischemic neuronal survival. Ischemic alterations to astrocyte energy metabolism and the uptake and metabolism of the excitatory amino acid transmitter glutamate may be particularly important. Despite the significance of ischemic astrocyte injury, little is known of the mechanisms responsible for astrocyte death and dysfunction. This review focuses on differences between astrocyte and neuronal metabolism and mitochondrial function, and on neuronal-glial interactions. The potential for astrocyte mitochondria to serve as targets of neuroprotective interventions is also discussed.     

Inhibition of Autophagy Contributes to Ischemic Postconditioning-Induced Neuroprotection against Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rats

Background

Ischemic postconditioning (IPOC), or relief of ischemia in a stuttered manner, has emerged as an innovative treatment strategy to reduce programmed cell death, attenuate ischemic injuries, and improve neurological outcomes. However, the mechanisms involved have not been completely elucidated. Recent studies indicate that autophagy is a type of programmed cell death that plays elusive roles in controlling neuronal damage and metabolic homeostasis. This study aims to determine the role of autophagy in IPOC-induced neuroprotection against focal cerebral ischemia in rats.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A focal cerebral ischemic model with permanent middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion plus transient common carotid artery (CCA) occlusion was established. The autophagosomes and the expressions of LC3/Beclin 1/p62 were evaluated for their contribution to the activation of autophagy. We found that autophagy was markedly induced with the upregulation of LC3/Beclin 1 and downregulation of p62 in the penumbra at various time intervals following ischemia. IPOC, performed at the onset of reperfusion, reduced infarct size, mitigated brain edema, inhibited the induction of LC3/Beclin 1 and reversed the reduction of p62 simultaneously. Rapamycin, an inducer of autophagy, partially reversed all the aforementioned effects induced by IPOC. Conversely, autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) attenuated the ischemic insults, inhibited the activation of autophagy, and elevated the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, to an extent comparable to IPOC.

Conclusions/Significance

The present study suggests that inhibition of the autophagic pathway plays a key role in IPOC-induced neuroprotection against focal cerebral ischemia. Thus, pharmacological inhibition of autophagy may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of stroke.     

Refocusing the Brain: New Approaches in Neuroprotection Against Ischemic Injury

Neurochemical Research - A new era for neuroprotective strategies is emerging in ischemia/reperfusion. This has forced to review the studies existing to date based in neuroprotection against...     

Autophagy Activation Contributes to the Neuroprotection of Remote Ischemic Perconditioning Against Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rats

Remote ischemic perconditioning (RIPer) has been proved to provide potent cardioprotection. However, there are few studies on neuroprotection of RIPer. This study aims to clarify the neuroprotective effect of RIPer and the role of autophagy induced by RIPer against cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in rats. Using a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model in rats to imitate focal cerebral ischemia. RIPer was carried out 4 cycles of 10 min ischemia and 10 min reperfusion, with a thin elastic band tourniquet encircled on the bilateral femoral arteries at the start of 10 min after MCAO. Autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and autophagy inducer rapamycin were administered respectively to determine the contribution of autophagy in RIPer. Neurologic deficit scores, infarct volume, brain edema, Nissl staining, TUNEL assay, immunohistochemistry and western blot was performed to analyze the neuroprotection of RIPer and the contribution of autophagy in RIPer. RIPer significantly exerted neuroprotective effects against cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in rats, and the autophagy-lysosome pathway was activated by RIPer treatment. 3-MA reversed the neuroprotective effects induced by RIPer, whereas rapamycin ameliorated the brain ischemic injury. Autophagy activation contributes to the neuroprotection by RIPer against focal cerebral ischemia in rats.     

Neuroprotection by Curcumin in Ischemic Brain Injury Involves the Akt/Nrf2 Pathway

Oxidative damage plays a critical role in many diseases of the central nervous system. This study was conducted to determine the molecular mechanisms involved in the putative anti-oxidative effects of curcumin against experimental stroke. Oxygen and glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) was used to mimic ischemic insult in primary cultured cortical neurons. A rapid increase in the intracellular expression of NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase1 (NQO1) induced by OGD was counteracted by curcumin post-treatment, which paralleled attenuated cell injury. The reduction of phosphorylation Akt induced by OGD was restored by curcumin. Consequently, NQO1 expression and the binding activity of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) to antioxidant response element (ARE) were increased. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"LY294002","term_id":"1257998346","term_text":"LY294002"}}LY294002 blocked the increase in phospho-Akt evoked by curcumin and abolished the associated protective effect. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion for 60 minutes. Curcumin administration significantly reduced infarct size. Curcumin also markedly reduced oxidative stress levels in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats; hence, these effects were all suppressed by {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"LY294002","term_id":"1257998346","term_text":"LY294002"}}LY294002. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that curcumin protects neurons against ischemic injury, and this neuroprotective effect involves the Akt/Nrf2 pathway. In addition, Nrf2 is involved in the neuroprotective effects of curcumin against oxidative damage.     

Effective Neuroprotection by Ischemic Postconditioning is Associated with a Decreased Expression of RGMa and Inflammation Mediators in Ischemic Rats

Whether ischemic postconditioning (IPC) can significantly alleviate ischemic injury hinges on the appropriate measure. In this study, the expression RGMa and IL-1β, IL-6 are investigated to estimate the therapeutic benefits of various postconditioning strategies after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. The study consists of the sham-operated group and five treatment groups: ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), two proximate ischemic postconditioning (IPC-S and IPC-M), remote postconditioning (RIPC) and delayed postconditioning (DIPC) groups. We find that rats in IPC and RIPC groups exhibit significantly less neural deficit and lower infarct volume than that in I/R and DIPC groups after ischemia/reperfusion. Moreover, in ischemic cortex and hippocampus, the mRNA level of RGMa is much lower in IPC and RIPC groups. Immunohistochemical analysis indicates that the expression of RGMa, IL-1β and IL-6 are reduced in IPC and RIPC groups (especially in IPC-S group). Furthermore, neurofilament staining reveals that the rats in IPC and RIPC groups have less axonal injury than that in I/R and DIPC groups. Our studies suggest that the optimal strategy to attenuate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion is achieved by early, short-term, and multiple cycles of proximal IPC. The cerebral protective effect of IPC may be associated with the decreased expression of RGMa and inflammation mediators.     

Nicotine-Induced Neuroprotection Against Ischemic Injury Involves Activation of Endocannabinoid System in Rats

Nicotine has been reported to exert certain protective effect in the Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. Whether it has a similar action in focal cerebral ischemia was unclear. In the present study, rats received either an injection of (?)-nicotine hydrogen tartrate salt (1.2 mg/kg, i.p.) or the vehicle 2 h before the 120 min middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neurological deficits and histological injury were assessed at 24 h after reperfusion. The content of endocannabinoids and the expression of cannabinoid receptor CB1 in brain tissues were determined at different time points after nicotine administration. Results showed that nicotine administration ameliorated neurological deficits and reduced infarct volume induced by cerebral ischemia in the rats. The neuroprotective effect was partially reversed by CB1 blockage. The content of the endocannabinoids N-arachidonylethanolamine and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, as well as the expression of cannabinoid receptor CB1 were up-regulated in brain tissues after nicotine delivery. These results suggest that endogenous cannabinoid system is involved in the nicotine-induced neuroprotection against transient focal cerebral ischemia.     

Valproate Administered after Traumatic Brain Injury Provides Neuroprotection and Improves Cognitive Function in Rats

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) initiates a complex series of neurochemical and signaling changes that lead to pathological events including neuronal hyperactivity, excessive glutamate release, inflammation, increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and cerebral edema, altered gene expression, and neuronal dysfunction. It is believed that a drug combination, or a single drug acting on multiple targets, may be an effective strategy to treat TBI. Valproate, a widely used antiepileptic drug, has a number of targets including GABA transaminase, voltage-gated sodium channels, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3, and histone deacetylases (HDACs), and therefore may attenuate a number of TBI-associated pathologies.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using a rodent model of TBI, we tested if post-injury administration of valproate can decrease BBB permeability, reduce neural damage and improve cognitive outcome. Dose-response studies revealed that systemic administration of 400 mg/kg (i.p.), but not 15, 30, 60 or 100 mg/kg, increases histone H3 and H4 acetylation, and reduces GSK-3 activity, in the hippocampus. Thirty min post-injury administration of 400 mg/kg valproate improved BBB integrity as indicated by a reduction in Evans Blue dye extravasation. Consistent with its dose response to inhibit GSK-3 and HDACs, valproate at 400 mg/kg, but not 100 mg/kg, reduced TBI-associated hippocampal dendritic damage, lessened cortical contusion volume, and improved motor function and spatial memory. These behavioral improvements were not observed when SAHA (suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid), a selective HDAC inhibitor, was administered.

Conclusion/Significance

Our findings indicate that valproate given soon after TBI can be neuroprotective. As clinically proven interventions that can be used to minimize the damage following TBI are not currently available, the findings from this report support the further testing of valproate as an acute therapeutic strategy.     

Carnosine Protects the Brain of Rats and Mongolian Gerbils against Ischemic Injury: After-Stroke-Effect

Carnosine, a specific constituent of excitable tissues of vertebrates, exhibits a significant antioxidant protecting effect on the brain damaged by ischemic-reperfusion injury when it was administered to the animals before ischemic episode. In this study, the therapeutic effect of carnosine was estimated on animals when this drug was administered intraperitoneally (100 mg/kg body weight) after ischemic episode induced by experimental global brain ischemia. Treatment of the animals with carnosine after ischemic episode under long-term (7–14 days) reperfusion demonstrated its pronounced protective effect on neurological symptoms and animal mortality. Carnosine also prevented higher lipid peroxidation of brain membrane structures and increased a resistance of neuronal membranes to the in vitro induced oxidation. Measurements of malonyl dialdehyde (MDA) in brain homogenates showed its increase in the after brain stroke animals and decreased MDA level in the after brain stroke animals treated with carnosine. We concluded that carnosine compensates deficit in antioxidant defense system of brain damaged by ischemic injury. The data presented demonstrate that carnosine is effective in protecting the brain in the post-ischemic period. Special issue dedicated to Dr. Bernd Hamprecht     

Peroxynitrite-Induced Tyrosine Nitration Contributes to Matrix Metalloprotease-3 Activation: Relevance to Hyperglycemic Ischemic Brain Injury and Tissue Plasminogen Activator

Matrix metalloprotease-3 (MMP3) activation mediates the tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)-induced hemorrhagic transformation after stroke. Hyperglycemia (HG) further exacerbates this outcome. We have recently shown that HG increases MMP3 activity in the brain after stroke. However, the combined HG-tPA effect on MMP3 activation, and the mechanisms through which MMP3 is activated were not previously reported. Accordingly, this study tested the hypothesis that tPA and HG increases MMP3 activity in the brain after stroke through peroxynitrite induced tyrosine nitration. Normoglycemic and mildly hyperglycemic male Wistar rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery suture occlusion for 90 min or thromboembolic occlusion, and up to 24 h reperfusion, with and without tPA. MMP3 activity and tyrosine nitration were evaluated in brain homogenates at 24 h. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVEC) were subjected to either 3 h hypoxia or 6 h OGD under either normal or high glucose conditions with or without tPA, with or without peroxynitrite scavenger, FeTPPs. MMP3 activity and MMP3 tyrosine nitration were assessed at 24 h. HG and tPA significantly increased activity and tyrosine nitration of MMP3 in the brain. In BMVECs, tPA but not HG increased MMP3 activity. Treating BMVEC with FeTPPs significantly reduced the tPA-induced increase in MMP3 activity and nitration. Augmented oxidative and nitrative stress may be potential mechanisms contributing to MMP3 activation in hyperglycemic stroke, especially with tPA administration. Peroxynitrite may be playing a critical role in mediating MMP3 activation through tyrosine nitration in hyperglycemic stroke.     

长期酒精摄入对雄性大鼠生殖系统的损伤

摘要目的：研究长期酒精摄入对雄性大鼠生殖系统的损伤机制。方法：选用8 周龄的SD 大鼠,进行随机分组：对照组（5％蔗糖, 口服）;酒精组（4g/kg,口服）。连续12周后,分别取附睾考察精子数目、活力;取血清检测睾酮和促黄体生产素（LH）含量;计算睾 丸- 体重比,并检测睾丸中丙二醛（MDA）、谷胱甘肽（GSH）含量以及谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GPx）和超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）的活 性;同时检测凋亡相关蛋白bax,bcl-2 以及caspase-3 前体和剪切体的蛋白表达。结果：酒精组12 周后,大鼠的睾丸- 体重比明显 降低（P<0.05）,精子数目减少（P<0.01）,精子活力下降（P<0.01）;血清中睾酮含量下降（P<0.05）,LH 含量增加（P<0.05）;睾丸中 MDA 含量增加（P<0.01）,GSH 含量降低（P<0.05）,GPx 和SOD活性下降（P<0.01）;凋亡相关蛋白bax 表达增加（P<0.05）,caspase -3 剪切体与前体的比值增加（P<0.01）。结论：长期摄入酒精引起的大鼠睾丸内氧化应激水平的增加是其导致其生殖系统损伤的重 要因素之一。     

长期酒精摄入对雄性大鼠生殖系统的损伤

目的：研究长期酒精摄入对雄性大鼠生殖系统的损伤机制。方法：选用8周龄的SD大鼠,进行随机分组：对照组（5％蔗糖,口服）;酒精组（4g／kg,口服）。连续12周后,分别取附睾考察精子数目、活力;取血清检测睾酮和促黄体生产素（LH）含量;计算睾丸一体重比,并检测睾丸中丙二醛（MDA）、谷胱甘肽（GSH）含量以及谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GPx）和超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）的活性;同时检测凋亡相关蛋白bax,bcl-2以及caspase．3前体和剪切体的蛋白表达。结果：酒精组12周后,大鼠的睾丸．体重比明显降低（P〈0．05）,精子数目减少（P〈0．01）,精子活力下降（P〈0．01）;血清中睾酮含量下降（P〈0．05）,LH含量增加（P〈0．05）;睾丸中MDA含量增加（P〈0．01）,GSH含量降低（P〈0．05）,GPX和SOD活性下降（P〈0,01）;凋亡相关蛋白bax表达增加（P〈0．05）,caspase-3剪切体与前体的比值增加（P〈O．01）。结论：长期摄入酒精引起的大鼠睾丸内氧化应激水平的增加是其导致其生殖系统损伤的重要因素之一。     

The Role of Neuroglobin in the Neuroprotection of Limb Ischemic Preconditioning in Rats

Recent evidence suggests that limb ischemic preconditioning (LIP) protects neurons against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. However, the mechanisms of LIP are not well understood. Neuroglobin (Ngb) is a recently discovered globin that affords protection against hypoxic/ischemic brain injury. This study was performed to investigate the role of Ngb in the neuroprotection of LIP against brain ischemia and the involvements of mitochondria in the process. The rat global brain ischemic model was used, and the CA1 hippocampus was selected as the observational target. Ngb expression was investigated by RT-PCR and Western blot. Neuropathological evaluation was performed by thionin staining. Mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity, and ultrastructure were examined by flow cytometry, spectrophotometry, and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. We also used Ngb antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODNs) and Ngb inducer hemin to inhibit or mimic the effect of LIP. We found that LIP significantly up-regulated Ngb expression and protected neurons against ischemia. Furthermore, LIP effectively improved deterioration in the Δψm, mitochondrial Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity, and ultrastructure induced by cerebral ischemia. These effects of LIP were inhibited partly by Ngb AS-ODNs and mimicked by hemin. It could be concluded that up-regulation of Ngb expression played an important role in the neuroprotection induced by LIP, and the Ngb-mediated neuroprotection of LIP was, at least partly, associated with mitochondria.     

The Early Stage Formation of PI3K-AMPAR GluR2 Subunit Complex Facilitates the Long Term Neuroprotection Induced by Propofol Post-Conditioning in Rats

Previously, we have shown that the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) mediated acute (24 h) post-conditioning neuroprotection induced by propofol. We also found that propofol post-conditioning produced long term neuroprotection and inhibited the internalization of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor GluR2 subunit up to 28 days post middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). However, the relationship between PI3K with AMPA receptor GluR2 subunit trafficking in propofol post-conditioning has never been explored. Here we showed that propofol post-conditioning promoted the binding of PI3K to the C-terminal of AMPA receptor GluR2 subunit and formed a complex within 1 day after transient MCAO. Interestingly, the enhanced activity of PI3K was observed in the hippocampus of post-conditioning rats at day 1 post ischemia, whereas the decrease of AMPA receptor GluR2 subunit internalization was found up to 28 days in the same group. Administration of PI3K selective antagonist wortmannin inhibited the improvement of spatial learning memory and the increase of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus up to 28 days post ischemia. It also reversed the inhibition of AMPA receptor GluR2 internalization induced by propofol post-conditioning. Together, our data indicated the critical role of PI3K in regulating the long term neuroprotection induced by propofol post-conditioning. Moreover, this role was established by first day activation of PI3K and formation of PI3K-AMPA receptor GluR2 complex, thus stabilized the structure of postsnaptic AMPA receptor and inhibited the internalization of GluR2 subunit during the early stage of propofol post-conditioning.     

Daphnetin, a Natural Coumarin Derivative, Provides the Neuroprotection Against Glutamate-Induced Toxicity in HT22 Cells and Ischemic Brain Injury

Daphnetin (DAP), a coumarin derivative, has been reported to have multiple pharmacological actions including analgesia, antimalarial, anti-arthritic, and anti-pyretic properties. It is unclear whether DAP has neuroprotective effects on ischemic brain injury. In this study, we found that DAP treatment (i.c.v.) reduced the infarct volume at 24 h after ischemia/reperfusion injury and improved neurological behaviors in a middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model. Moreover, we provided evidences that DAP had protective effects on infarct volume in neonate rats even it was administrated at 4 h after cerebral hypoxia/ischemia injury. To explore its neuroprotective mechanisms of DAP, we examined the protection of DAP on glutamate toxicity-induced cell death in hippocampal HT-22 cells. Our results demonstrated that DAP protected against glutamate toxicity in HT-22 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Further, we found that DAP maintained the cellular levels of glutathione and superoxide dismutase activity, suggesting the anti-oxidatant activity of DAP. Since DAP has been used for the treatment of coagulation disorder and rheumatoid arthritis for long time with a safety profile, DAP will be a promising agent for the treatment of stroke.     

Abnormal Mitochondrial L-Arginine Transport Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Heart Failure and Rexoygenation Injury

Background

Impaired mitochondrial function is fundamental feature of heart failure (HF) and myocardial ischemia. In addition to the effects of heightened oxidative stress, altered nitric oxide (NO) metabolism, generated by a mitochondrial NO synthase, has also been proposed to impact upon mitochondrial function. However, the mechanism responsible for arginine transport into mitochondria and the effect of HF on such a process is unknown. We therefore aimed to characterize mitochondrial L-arginine transport and to investigate the hypothesis that impaired mitochondrial L-arginine transport plays a key role in the pathogenesis of heart failure and myocardial injury.

Methods and Results

In mitochondria isolated from failing hearts (sheep rapid pacing model and mouse Mst1 transgenic model) we demonstrated a marked reduction in L-arginine uptake (p<0.05 and p<0.01 respectively) and expression of the principal L-arginine transporter, CAT-1 (p<0.001, p<0.01) compared to controls. This was accompanied by significantly lower NO production and higher 3-nitrotyrosine levels (both p<0.05). The role of mitochondrial L-arginine transport in modulating cardiac stress responses was examined in cardiomyocytes with mitochondrial specific overexpression of CAT-1 (mtCAT1) exposed to hypoxia-reoxygenation stress. mtCAT1 cardiomyocytes had significantly improved mitochondrial membrane potential, respiration and ATP turnover together with significantly decreased reactive oxygen species production and cell death following mitochondrial stress.

Conclusion

These data provide new insights into the role of L-arginine transport in mitochondrial biology and cardiovascular disease. Augmentation of mitochondrial L-arginine availability may be a novel therapeutic strategy for myocardial disorders involving mitochondrial stress such as heart failure and reperfusion injury.     

Nicotinamide Attenuates Focal Ischemic Brain Injury in Rats: With Special Reference to Changes in Nicotinamide and NAD+ Levels in Ischemic Core and Penumbra

We investigated the neuroprotective action of nicotinamide in focal ischemia. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (5–7 months old) were subjected to photothrombotic occlusion of the right distal middle cerebral artery (MCA). Either nicotinamide (125 or 250 mg/kg) or vehicle was injected IV before MCA occlusion. Changes in the cerebral blood flow (CBF) were monitored using laser-Doppler flowmetry, and infarct volumes were determined with TTC staining 3 days after MCA occlusion. In another set of experiments, the brain nicotinamide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) levels were analyzed by HPLC using the frozen samples dissected from the regions corresponding to the ischemic core and penumbra. In the 250-mg/kg nicotinamide group, the ischemic CBF was significantly increased compared to that the untreated group, and the infarct volumes were substantially attenuated (–36%). On the other hand, the ischemic CBF in the 125 mg/kg nicotinamide group was not significantly different from the untreated CBF, however, the infarct volumes were substantially attenuated (–38%). Cerebral ischemia per se did not affect the concentrations of nicotinamide and NAD⁺ both in the penumbra and ischemic core. In the nicotinamide groups, the brain nicotinamide levels increased significantly in all areas examined, and brain NAD⁺ levels increased in the penumbra but not in the ischemic core. Increased brain levels of nicotinamide are considered to be primarily important for neuroprotection against ischemia, and the protective action may be partly mediated through the increased NAD⁺ in the penumbra.     

KATP通道对缺血性心肌电平衡的维护作用及机制

目的：利用异丙肾上腺素（ISO）诱导大鼠心肌缺血性损伤模型和心肌细胞损伤模型,并对其进行药物干预,探讨心肌ATP敏感性钾 通道（KATP通道）维持缺血性心肌电平衡的作用与机制。方法：在动物实验中,将雄性SD大鼠,随机分为5组,正常对照组大鼠皮下注射0.9% 氯化钠溶液,其余各组大鼠均皮下注射等量1 g ? L -1 ISO（qd）,连续9 d,其间,在第7~9 d,除了正常对照组和模型组外,其他3组大鼠还 分别灌胃给予1.75 g ? L -1 普萘洛尔（PRO）2 mL ? kg -1 ? d -1 、5 g ? L -1 曲美他嗪（VAS）2 mL ? kg -1 ? d -1 或腹腔注射给予5 g ? L -1 二苯基碘（DPI） 1 mL ? kg -1 ? d -1 。在造模期间不同时间点,对各组大鼠进行心电图检查,并制备心肌标本,检测其中KATP通道亚基KIR6.2蛋白表达水平。 在细胞实验中,将H9C2心肌细胞分成对照组（不给药）、ISO组、ISO+ PRO组、ISO+DPI组和ISO+VAS组,后3组细胞均在1 μmol ? L -1 ISO加入前30 min,分别给予2 μmol ? L -1 PRO、10 μmol ? L -1 DPI和10 μmol ? L -1 VAS,且在加入ISO后,与ISO组细胞一样,再孵育1 和24 h,采用实时荧光定量 PCR法测定各组细胞中KATP通道亚基KIR6.2和SUR2A基因表达水平。结果：大鼠实验显示,与正常对照组相比, 模型组大鼠在造模的第3、7 d,心电图参数QTc明显缩短,心率加快（P ＜0.05）,且心肌中KIR6.2蛋白表达明显增多（P ＜0.01）,而造 模9 d后,其QTc明显延长（P ＜0.01）,心率减慢（P ＜0.05）,心肌中KIR6.2蛋白表达显著降低（P ＜0.01）;ISO+ PRO、ISO+DPI 和ISO+VAS各组大鼠在持续3 d分别接受3种药物治疗后,其QTc较模型组明显缩短,心率升高,均趋于恢复正常水平。细胞实验显示, 与对照组相比,ISO组H9C2细胞经ISO孵育1 h后,KIR6.2和SUR2A的mRNA表达显著上调（P ＜0.05）,而在ISO孵育24 h后, KIR6.2和SUR2A的mRNA表达显著下调（ P ＜0.01）;与ISO组相比,各给药组细胞经ISO孵育1 h后,KIR6.2和SUR2A的mRNA表 达均有不同程度下调,而在ISO孵育24 h后,KIR6.2和SUR2A的mRNA表达均显著上调（P ＜0.05或P ＜0.01）。结论：KATP通道对 维护缺血性心肌电平衡起重要作用。持续性激动β受体、氧化应激或能量供应不足等体内多条途径都会影响KATP通道的表达和功能,而保护 KATP通道功能,对于维持心电平衡,抑制心律失常基质形成,意义重大。     

The Role of Nitric Oxide in the Neuroprotection of Limb Ischemic Preconditioning in Rats

Brief limb ischemia was reported to protect neurons against injury induced by subsequent cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, and this phenomenon is known as limb ischemic preconditioning (LIP). To explore the role of nitric oxide (NO) in neuroprotection of LIP in rats, we observed changes in the content of nitric oxide (NO) and activity of NO synthase (NOS) in the serum and CA1 hippocampus of rats after transient limb ischemic preconditioning (LIP), and the influence of N^G-nitro-l-arginine methylester (l-NAME), a NOS inhibitor, on the neuroprotection of LIP against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Results showed that NO content and NOS activity in serum increased significantly after LIP compared with the sham group. The increase showed a double peak pattern, in which the first one appeared at time 0 (immediate time point) and the second one appeared at 48 h after the LIP (P < 0.01). The NO content and NOS activity in the CA1 hippocampus in LIP group showed similar change pattern with the changes in the serum, except for the first peak of up-regulation of NO content and NOS activity appeared at 6 h after LIP. Pretreatment with l-NAME before LIP blocked the neuroprotection of LIP against subsequent cerebral ischemic insult. The blocking effect of l-NAME was abolished with pretreatment of l-Arg. These findings indicated that NO may be associated with the tolerance of pyramidal cells in the CA1 hippocampus to ischemia induced by LIP in rats.