GIBBERELLIN-INDUCED INHIBITION OF FLORAL INITIATION IN FUCHSIA

The ‘Lord Byron’ cultivar of Fuchsia hybrida is a long day plant for which GA acts as an inhibitor of flower initiation. At the dosages required to inhibit initiation (0.025 μg per plant) GA also promotes increased stem elongation but causes no other departures from normal development. Similar tests with auxins, antiauxins, kinins, and other substances showed no effect on flower initiation at dosages equivalent to that for GA. At 10- to 100-fold greater dosages, auxins, kinins, and anti-auxins inhibit not only flower initiation but also vegetative development. Thus the effect of GA on flower initiation appears to be unique, although other hormonal substances, such as abscisin, have not been tested. GA-induced inhibition is directly proportional to the dosage applied and inversely to the strength of long day induction (as measured by the number of long days). GA is most effective when applied to the terminal bud rather than to the mature leaves, suggesting that it is active at the site of flower initiation rather than in the leaves. If it is applied after translocation of the floral stimuli from the leaves, GA does not prevent flower initiation. Regardless of the dose applied, GA is less effective if applied later rather than earlier during LD induction. The inhibitory effect persists for several days. For example, an 0.85 μg dosage causes an 8–10-day delay in initiation; lower dosages have reduced effects. GA inhibits flower initiation but has no effect upon flower development. The rate of bud development is the same in GA-treated and control plants. Apparently no more than one to two axillary buds immediately below the apical meristem are receptive to long day-induced floral stimuli from the leaves. Regardless of the daylength conditions axillary buds more basal do not initiate flowers but develop into branch axes. The effect of a long day treatment persists for a very short time, perhaps no longer than the inhibition caused by minimal GA dosage. Thus flower initiation continues for a very short time following the end of long day induction. The significance of these findings is discussed in relation to the many reports of GA-induced inhibition as well as promotion of flower initiation. In particular, the discussion concerns the nation that flower initiation in fuchsia may be controlled by a gibberellin-like transmissible inhibitor.     

The role of growth regulators in the differentiation of walnut buds (Juglans regia L.)

The character of endogenous regulators in walnut buds was followed by means of bioassays in the course of vegetation. It was ascertained that a rise in the level of gibberellin-like substances precedes the sprouting of buds. The origination of new buds in the axil of young leaves is accompanied by a fall in the level of auxins, by a low gibberellin content and by the presence of inhibitors. In this situation the primordia of staminate catkins are diferentiated in the basal buds. The vegetative buds which are formed in the axils of further leaves, stop developing because of the accumulating inhibitors. Towards the close of vegetation the primordia of pistillate flowers originate in terminal buds and their differentiation is accompanied by a substantial rise in the level of auxin-like substances, while some of the inhibitors keep asserting themselves. On the basis of these findings we have tested the possibility of affecting the differentiation of staminate primordia and of vegetative buds by the exogenous application of selected regulators. Spraying young leaves with IAA and MH solutions will increase the number of vegetative buds in the twigs. A later spray of other twigs by TIBA and GA₃ solutions will increase the number of staminate buds.     

The role of endogenous growth regulators in the differentiation processes of walnut (Juglans regia L.)

The character of endogenous growth substances was investigated in developing buds, young fruits and mature walnut leaves. The relatively high content of auxins and gibberellin-like substances was found by means of bioassays in the youngest primordia of vegetative buds. The level of auxins drops in the further course of primordia transformation into the staminate catkins. The development of leaf-buds is characterized by the accumulation of inhibitory activity as revealed by theAvena bioassay, whereas the data obtained from the lettuce bioassay indicate a pronounced stimulation. The onset of terminal bud development is also accompanied by inhibitions and it is only with pistillate flower differentiation that the temporary rise in auxin level is observed. An inhibitory activity was found in these extracts using lettuce bioassay. There is a relatively high auxin level in young fruits, mature leaves and resting buds during the mid-summer period whereas the accumulation of clearcut inhibitions is signalled by the results of lettuce bioassay. The regulatory role of growth substances in differentiation may be better understood during the second year as many leaf-abnormities appear only with the outgrowing of the bud. Abnormal catkins differ in the number of florets and stamens and some even bear pistillate flowers. Fruit development is liable to deviations in the early stages of differentiation. Abnormal fruits enable us to elucidate many structural peculiarities.     

The Gibberellin-like Substances and Growth Inhibitors in Developing Strawberry Leaves

Gibberellin-like substances and inhibitors present in extractsof runner buds, and unfolding and mature leaves of strawberryhave been fractionated and compared. The runner-bud water-solubleresidue was more strongly inhibitory than that from unfoldingand mature leaves. The crude acid fraction from unfolding andmature leaves contained appreciable amounts of an inhibitor,probably abscisic acid, which was not detected in the buds.The unfolding leaves had a higher concentration of acidic gibberellin-likesubstances than either buds or mature leaves; they also containeda number of neutral gibberellin-like substances. Mature leaveshad a low concentration of gibberellin-like substances, allof which were acidic. A number of these were highly non-polartypes, not found in the buds or unfolding leaves.     

Changes in Cytokinins and Gibberellin-Like Substances in Pinus radiata Buds during Lateral Shoot Initiation and the Characterization of Ribosyl Zeatin and a Novel Ribosyl Zeatin Glycoside

Based on detection and quantitation by bioassay, endogenous gibberellin-like substances (GAs) and cytokinins (CKs) in Pinus radiata D. Don buds during sequential shoot initiation shift from less polar to more polar forms (GAs) and from conjugated to free forms (CKs). As the terminal bud moves from the production of “short shoots” (needle fascicles) to “long shoots” (lateral branches or female conebuds), a more polar GA appears while a glucoside-conjugate of zeatin riboside is reduced, and zeatin riboside levels increase markedly.     

枇杷成花过程叶片蛋白质变化动态

研究了温室内水分胁迫下盆栽枇杷和大田枇杷的成花和未成花枝梢叶片可溶性蛋白质含量在花芽分化过程中的变化动态,同时对成花和未成花枝梢顶芽进行特异蛋白双向凝胶电泳研究。结果表明,枇杷成花诱导需经历可溶性蛋白质含量一定程度的升高,然后急剧下降的过程,即可溶性蛋白质的升高对应成花诱导,而蛋白质的下降与形态分化紧密相关。成花植株枝梢顶芽与未成花植株枝梢顶芽的2-DE图谱总模式相同,但前者比后者多了两种蛋白质,其分子量和等电点一为MW 14110.5±110.8、pI 5.350±0.008,另一为MW 66446.3±260.9、pI 4.730±0.032,两种蛋白质均呈酸性,可能与枇杷成花密切相关。     

AgNO3诱导的苦瓜纯雌系完全花分化与幼叶和花蕾中内源激素的关系

本文用酶联免疫检测（ELIsA）技术研究三叶-心期喷施AgNO3诱导苦瓜纯雌系完全花分化过程中花蕾与幼叶中内源激素含量变化。结果显示：喷施AgNO,后幼叶中IAA、GA,、ZR和ABA含量与喷水的相比,都是先下降后增加。AgNO3处理的花蕾中这4种激素含量在72h内没有一致变化规律,但变化幅度大于幼叶的,表明生殖器官的内源激素对苦瓜性别分化影响比营养器官的大。AgNO3处理后24-48h内,花蕾中这4种激素的含量明显低于喷水的,而其余时间则高于喷水的。此外,AgNO3处理的花蕾中ABA／IAA、ZR／I从和GA3／IAA比值也在2448h发生剧烈的变化,48h之后这些激素比值与喷水的相差不大。这些结果说明了AgNO3处理后24-48h是苦瓜纯雌系性别分化的关键时期,IAA可能是诱导纯雌系苦瓜雄性分化的关键激素。     

Timing of reproductive and vegetative development in Saxifraga oppositifolia in an alpine and a subnival climate

Morphogenesis of floral structures, dynamics of reproductive development from floral initiation until fruit maturation, and leaf turnover in vegetative short-stem shoots of Saxifraga oppositifolia were studied in three consecutive years at an alpine site (2300 m) and at an early- and late-thawing subnival site (2650 m) in the Austrian Alps. Marked differences in the timing and progression of reproductive and vegetative development occurred: individuals of the alpine population required a four-month growing season to complete reproductive development and initiate new flower buds, whereas later thawing individuals from the subnival sites attained the same structural and functional state within only two and a half months. Reproductive and vegetative development were not strictly correlated because timing of flowering, seed development, and shoot growth depended mainly on the date of snowmelt, whereas the initiation of flower primordia was evidently controlled by photoperiod. Floral induction occurred during June and July, from which a critical day length for primary floral induction of about 15 h could be inferred. Preformed flower buds overwinter in a pre-meiotic state and meiosis starts immediately after snowmelt in spring. Vegetative short-stem shoots performed a full leaf turnover within a growing season: 16 (+/-0.8 SE) new leaves per shoot developed in alpine and early-thawing subnival individuals and 12 (+/-1.2 SE) leaves in late-thawing subnival individuals. New leaf primordia emerged continuously from snowmelt until late autumn, even when plants were temporarily covered with snow. Differences in the developmental dynamics between the alpine and subnival population were independent of site temperatures, and are probably the result of ecotypic adaptation to differences in growing season length.     

Development of Meristems of Weigela florida Variety 'Bristol Ruby' Following Reproductive Induction in Long Days

Weigela florida variety ‘Bristol Ruby’ has longday requirements for its growth and, in general, for its flowering.Vegetative development, floral initiation and floral organogenesisare described using scanning electron microscopy during photoperiodictreatment in long days, under controlled conditions. Flowering of axillary buds of cuttings has been studied. Theapex of Weigela at the vegetative phase is characterized bya very small hollow meristem. After 9 long days, the meristemenlarges and, after 12 long days, early axillary buds are initiatedin the axils of the leaves, which become bracts. When the numberof long days was increased, flowers were initiated in the budson the induced branches; first at the proximal part of the branchwhere development afterwards slowed down, then on the medianparts of the branch where development was accelerated. Two bracteoles are differentiated soon after floral initiation;first initiation of the calyx required 18 long days. Petals,stamens and ovary were rapidly initiated after that. Weigelaflowers are clustered; the inflorescence ceased growth by abortionof the terminal meristem or by formation of a terminal flower.In axillary buds of the fifth node the formation of the clusterwas completed about 20 days after the beginning of floral induction. Weigela florida ‘Bristol Ruby’, scanning electron microscopic analysis, vegetative meristem, floral development stages, long days induction     

Changes in endogenous hormones in apple during bud burst induced by defoliation

Under the tropical conditions of East Java, terminal buds of apple burst at any time of the year in response to removal of the subtending leaves. Following two such defoliations, two weeks apart on separate trees, there was a decrease in abscisic acid (ABA), a three-fold increase in gibberellin-like substances (GAs) and only a slight increase in cytokinin-like substances (CKs) in the apex tissue of closed buds. These changes preceded bud opening and the associated increases in fresh and dry weight, and may be causally related to bud burst. In open buds (i.e. young expanding leaves) the concentration of CKs was greater, and the concentrations of ABA and GAs less, than the concentrations in closed buds. As the leaves expanded, ABA increased and GAs and CKs decreased in concentration. The decrease in concentration of GAs and CKs, however, was due to the rise in dry weight of the expanding tissue; the amounts of all three hormones (per apex) increased. During bud burst there was a concurrent decrease in the CKs of subtending stems, suggesting a transfer into the expanding bud tissues. Removal of the old leaves by defoliation may remove the source of ABA and allow the amount of GAs in the apex to rise, bud burst following. Stem CKs may be utilized in the expansion of the new leaves in the bursting buds.     

Changes in endogenous gibberellins in plant organs producing and utilizing photosynthates

The distribution of endogenous gibberellin-like substances in individual organs ofZea mays L., cv. CE 250, plants was investigated during the transition from the vegetative to the generative phase of development. The gradient of the content of gibberellin-like substances and photosynthetic activity in leaf segments was followed in different parts of the Jeaves, as well as the changes in the content of gibberellin-like substances in leaf segments during an exposure in the light and in the dark. The gradient of the content of endogenous gibberellin-liko substances in the leaves, in the stem and in the spike is interpreted in terms of possible relationship of these compounds to the regulation of sink — source.     

Changes of endogenous hormones in lateral buds of chrysanthemum during their outgrowth

The character of branching for two chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium) cvs. Jinghai and Jingyun was observed, and the changes of endogenous hormones in apical and lateral buds were investigated to determine the relationship between the pattern of hormone distribution, apical dominance, and lateral bud outgrowth. The growth rate of Jinghai lateral buds was higher than that of Jingyun. In vegetative growth stage, IAA level in apical buds of Jingyun was significantly higher than in Jinghai. After flower induction, IAA level in apical buds of two cultivars decreased remarkably, but the IAA level decreased in Jingyun faster than in Jinghai. These results showed that the higher was the IAA level in apical buds the stronger was inhibition of lateral bud outgrowth. An increase in IAA and iP/iPA and a decrease in ABA concentrations were closely associated with lateral bud growth alterations in chrysanthemum.     

The Rest Period of RhododendronFlower Buds I. EFFECT OF THE BUD SCALES ON THE ONSET AND DURATION OF REST

Shortly after flower differentiation, Rhododendron flower developmentis interrupted by a rest period. The results reported here showthat the onset and duration of rest depended upon the presenceof the flower bud scales. When the scales were removed beforethe onset of rest, the flowers continued to elongate and attainedanthesis. Intact buds stopped growing and remained in rest forat least four months. Scale removal after the onset of restterminated the rest period, though there was a lag phase beforethe flowers began to elongate. The duration of the lag phasewas related to the time of scale removal. The scales preventedflower development in situ, on detached stems and in vitro.Theresults further show that the rest period of each flower budwas independent of the rest period of adjacent flower buds andthat the resting terminal flower buds correlatively inhibitedthe growth of the lateral vegetative apices. The correlativeinhibition was eliminated by removing the terminal flower budor by breaking the rest period of the flower bud.     

Periods of organogenesis in mono- and bicyclic annual shoots of Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)

The organogenetic cycle of shoots on main branches of 4-year-old Juglans regia trees was studied. Mono- and bicyclic floriferous and vegetative annual shoots were analysed. Five parent annual shoot types were sampled between October 1992 and August 1993. Organogenesis of summer growth units was monitored between 16 Jun. and 3 Aug. 1993. Variations over time in the number of nodes, cataphylls and embryonic green leaves of terminal buds were studied. The number of nodes of parent shoot buds was compared with the number of nodes of shoots derived from parent shoot buds. The spring growth units of mono- and bicyclic shoots consist exclusively of preformed leaves which were differentiated, respectively, during the spring flush of growth (mid-April until mid-May) or the summer flush of growth (mid-June until early August) in the previous growing season. Thus, winter buds may consist of flower and leaf primordia differentiated in two different periods during annual shoot extension. The summer growth units of bicyclic shoots consist of preformed leaves that were differentiated in spring buds during the spring flush of growth in the current growing season. Bud morphology is compared between spring and summer shoots.     

Contribution to the study of seasonal dynamics of endogenous stimulators and inhibitors in peach trees

For three consecutive years the content of natural stimulators and inhibitors was observed in leaves and shoots of peach trees. Research was directed to the question of development of flower buds. The substances under study were isolated from the acidic fraction of ether extracts by means of paper chromatography and their concentration was determined by biological test. The activities of substances which either stimulate or inhibit the growth of oat coleoptiles, were added up. The curve expressing the content of stimulators in shoots in relation to the fresh weight showed its maximum in the period of full growth of shoots (15 June–15 July according to the fluctuating vegetative conditions) and it showed a decreasing tendency at the end of the season. The decline of the curve showing the content of inhibitors is of similar direction but less steep. The trend of substances under study is the same in leaves as in shoots, but their quantity is lower. Stimulation and inhibition effects in individual sampling intervals were added up to make a common curve which seems to express the combined action of stimulators and inhibitors in the plant, which determines its growth pattern.     

Contribution to the study of seasonal dynamics of endogenous stimulators and inhlbitors in peach trees

For three consecutive years the content of natural stimulators and inhibitors was observed in leaves and shoots of peach trees. Research was directed to the question of development of flower buds. The substances under study were isolated from the acidic fraction of ether extracts by means of paper chromatography and their concentration was determined by biological test. The activities of substances which either stimulate or inhibit the growth of oat coleoptiles, were added up. The curve expressing the content of stimulators in shoots in relation to the fresh weight showed its maximum in the period of full growth of shoots (15 June–15 July according to the fluctuating vegetative conditions) and it showed a decreasing tendency at the end of the season. The decline of the curve showing the content of inhibitors is of similar direction but less steep. The trend of substances under study is the same in leaves as in shoots, but their quantity is lower. Stimulation and inhibition effects in individual sampling intervals were added up to make a common curve which seems to express the combined action of stimulators and inhibitors in the plant, which determines its growth pattern.     

Growth Hormone Changes in Chrysanthemum morifolium: Effects of Environmental Factors Controlling Flowering

Simultaneous quantitative analyses have been made of the endogenouslevels of auxin- and gibberellin like substances, growth inhibitors,and auxin-oxidizing enzyme activity in the cold-requiring Chrysanthemummorifolium cv. Sunbeam subjected to different daylength, lightintensity and temperature regimes known to affect flowering.While little hormone or enzyme activity was found in extractsfrom unvernalized plants, a striking rise in auxin-oxidizingenzyme activity occurred rapidly after the end of cold treatment.Increased auxin activity was also recorded shortly after vernalization.At 28 °C both enzyme and auxin activity declined over aperiod of 3–4 weeks; at 20 °C this response was delayed.Gibberellin activity at 28 °C rose steeply about 2 weeksfrom vernalization and declined several weeks later; at 20 °Ca similar response was less marked. Low light intensity treatment,which may have increased endogenous auxin levels, or exogenousauxin application reduced gibberellin-like substance levelsand cause d devernalization.Phosphon D treatment also loweredgibberellin levels and prevented flowering. An extract fromvernalized plants containing gibberellin-like substances intensifiedthe flowering of partially vernalized test plants. Persistenceof high auxin activity in vernalized plants on long days wasassociated with failure to form normal flower buds. Stem elongationrates correlated in general with levels of endogenous auxin-and gibberellin-like substances. Significant amounts of an abscisin-likeinhibitor were found in extracts of flower buds. The mechanismof natural devernalization is discussed in relation to theseobservations.     

High temperature arrest of inflorescence development in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.)

High temperature causes unevenly-sized flower buds on broccoli inflorescences. This deformity limits production of broccoli to areas where summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 C. The stage of development sensitive to heat was determined by exposing plants of 'Galaxy' broccoli at varying developmental states to 35 C day temperature for 1 week, and subsequently analysing the head structure. During the high temperature exposure, the development of certain flower buds was arrested. There was no corresponding cessation of bud initiation at the apex. No injury resulted if heat was applied before the reproductive induction, or was their injury to differentiated flower buds. Meristems were affected only if heat was applied during inflorescence production or the floral initiation process. Shorter heat exposures produced little injury, and longer exposures were lethal. The plant's development at this sensitive period still appeared vegetative externally, but the youngest leaves had just begun to reorientate as a consequence of the reduced stem elongation rate. The meristem was less than 1 mm wide, and floral primordia were just forming, still subtended by leaf primordia. The injury was fully expressed by the time the head was first exposed (approximately 5-10 mm wide), though it became more apparent as the head matured. The buds that were delayed in development by the high temperature developed into normal flowers.Key words: Brassica oleracea, broccoli, flowering, heat injury, developmental arrest      

Determination for inflorescence development is a stable state,separable from determination for flower development in Pisum sativum L. buds

Terminal meristems of Pisum sativum (garden pea) transit from vegetative to inflorescence development, and begin producing floral axillary meristems. Determination for inflorescence development was assessed by culturing excised buds and meristems. The first node of floral initiation (NFI) for bud expiants developing in culture and for adventitious shoots forming on cultured meristems was compared with the NFI of intact control buds. When terminal buds having eight leaf primordia were excised from plants of different ages (i.e., number of unfolded leaves) and cultured on 6-benzylaminopurine and kinetin-supplemented medium, the NFI was a function of the age of the source plant. By age 3, all terminal buds were determined for inflorescence development. Determination occurred at least eight nodes before the first axillary flower was initiated. Thus, the axillary meristems contributing to the inflorescence had not formed at the time the bud was explanted. Similar results were obtained for cultured axillary buds. In addition, meristems excised without leaf primordia from axillary buds three nodes above the cotyledons of age-3 plants gave rise to adventitious buds with an NFI of 8.3 ±0.3 nodes. In contrast seed-derived plants had an NFI of 16.5 ±0.2. Thus cells within the meristem were determined for inflorescence development. These findings indicate that determination for inflorescence development in P. sativum is a stable developmental state, separable from determination for flower development, and occurring prior to initiation of the inflorescence at the level of meristems.