Staphylococcus aureus in rural drinking water.

Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from over 6% of 320 rural drinking water specimens. Well water was the most common source examined. The presence of S. aureus was not found to correlate with the presence of coliform bacteria. Strains of Staphylococcus that produced enterotoxin A were found in 40% of the samples containing S. aureus. Additional studies showed that faucet aerator screens were common sources of high cell densities of S. aureus.     

金黄色葡萄球菌生物膜形成机制研究进展

金黄色葡萄球菌是医院和社区获得性感染最常见的病原菌之一,而且可形成生物膜,从而导致生物膜相关疾病的产生。患者一旦发生金黄色葡萄球菌生物膜感染,难以彻底治愈。深入研究金黄色葡萄球菌生物膜形成的分子机制和调控网络,对寻找有效的防治、治疗药物和手段具有重要意义。我们就金黄色葡萄球菌生物膜形成过程和调控机制的研究近况做一综述。     

Integrin-mediated invasion of Staphylococcus aureus into human cells requires Src family protein-tyrosine kinases

Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of nosocomial infections, is able to invade eukaryotic cells by indirectly engaging beta1 integrin-containing host receptors, whereas non-pathogenic Staphylococcus carnosus is not invasive. Here, we identify intracellular signals involved in integrin-initiated internalization of S. aureus. In particular, the host cell actin cytoskeleton and Src family protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are essential to mediate S. aureus invasion. Src PTKs are activated in response to pathogenic S. aureus, but not S. carnosus. In addition, pharmacological and genetic interference with Src PTK function reduces bacterial internalization. Importantly, Src PTK-deficient cells are resistant to S. aureus invasion, demonstrating the essentiality of host Src PTKs in integrin-mediated uptake of this pathogen.     

Catabolism of the methyl derivatives of adenosine and cytidine in staphylococci.

Products of 1-methyladenosine, 2'-O-methyladenosine, 2'-O-methylcytidine, and 5-methylcytidine catabolism by resting cells of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus intermedius were chromatographically separated. The methyl group in 1-methyladenosine protected the adenosine derivative from deamination by S. intermedius but it did not protect N-glycosidic bond from cleavage by S. intermedius and S. aureus. The methyl group in 2'-O-methyladenosine and 2'-O-methylcytidine protected the N-glycosidic bond from cleavage by S. aureus and S. intermedius but it did not protect the adenosine and cytidine derivatives from deamination by S. intermedius. 5-Methylcytidine was converted by the common route in which 5-methylcytidine was first deaminated to ribothymidine which was cleaved to yield thymine. S. intermedius deaminated the purine and pyrimidine ribonucleosides adenosine, 2'-O-methyladenosine, cytidine, and 5-methylcytidine. Pyrimidine ribonucleosides (cytidine, 5-methyl-cytidine) were deaminated only slowly and purine ribonucleosides (adenosine, 2'-O-methyladenosine) not at all by S. aureus.     

The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus burn wound colonization

Thermal injury destroys the physical skin barrier that normally prevents invasion of microorganisms. This and concomitant depression of local and systemic host cellular and humoral immune responses are important factors that contribute to colonization and infection of the burn wound. One of the most common burn wound pathogens is Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus is both a human commensal and a frequent cause of infections leading to mild to life-threatening diseases. Despite a variety of infection control measures, for example patient cohorting and contact precaution at burn centres, S. aureus is still frequently encountered in burn wounds. Colonization with S. aureus has been associated with delayed wound healing, increased need for surgical interventions, and prolonged length of stay at burn centres. In this minireview, we focus on S. aureus nasal carriage in relation to S. aureus burn wound colonization and subsequent infection, and its impact on strategies for infection control.     

The Staphylococcus aureus surface protein IsdA mediates resistance to innate defenses of human skin

Resistance to human skin innate defenses is crucial for survival and carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, a common cutaneous pathogen and nasal colonizer. Free fatty acids extracted from human skin sebum possess potent antimicrobial activity against S. aureus. The mechanisms by which S. aureus overcomes this host defense during colonization remain unknown. Here, we show that S. aureus IsdA, a surface protein produced in response to the host, decreases bacterial cellular hydrophobicity rendering them resistant to bactericidal human skin fatty acids and peptides. IsdA is required for survival of S. aureus on live human skin. Reciprocally, skin fatty acids prevent the production of virulence determinants and the induction of antibiotic resistance in S. aureus and other Gram-positive pathogens. A purified human skin fatty acid was effective in treating systemic and topical infections of S. aureus suggesting that our natural defense mechanisms can be exploited to combat drug-resistant pathogens.     

Immunity induced by Staphylococcus aureus surface protein A was protective against lethal challenge of Staphylococcus aureus in BALB/c mice

Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of hospital-acquired bacteremia. Due to emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains, these infections present a serious public health threat. In this study, to develop a broadly protective vaccine, we tested whether immune responses induced by several proteins associated with S. aureus toxicity could protect mice from lethal challenge with human clinical S. aureus isolate USA300. We found that the surface protein A (SasA) of S. aureus could protect mice from lethal challenge of the bacteria.     

Expression of the gene encoding protein A in Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci

Two shuttle vectors containing the gene for protein A (spa) from Staphylococcus aureus have been constructed to study expression of the gene in various strains of S. aureus and in the coagulase-negative species Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus capitis, and Staphylococcus xylosus. One plasmid, pSPA15, contains the complete structural gene for protein A, which binds to the cell wall in various Staphylococcus species. The other plasmid, pSPA16, codes for a truncated protein A lacking the C-terminal part called region X. The latter is exclusively extracellular in all Staphylococcus species tested, which confirms the importance of region X for cell wall binding. The expression of the plasmid-coded protein A in various strains of S. aureus is strongly correlated to the expression of the chromosomal spa gene. The coagulase-negative species expressing plasmid-encoded protein A produce 12 to 30% of the amount coded by the chromosomal spa gene in S. aureus strains Cowan I and A676.     

Molecular analyses of conjugative, gentamicin-resistance plasmids from staphylococcal clinical isolates

Gentamicin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis strains which were isolated from infants with staphylococcal bacteremia were analyzed for the presence of self-transmissible gentamicin-resistance (Gmr) plasmids. Conjugative GMr plasmids of approximately 43.8-63 kilobases (kb) were found in all S. aureus strains. Inter- and intra-species transfer of Gmr plasmids by conjugation was observed from S. aureus to S. aureus and to S. epidermidis recipient strains. However, neither inter- nor intra-species transfer of gentamicin resistance by conjugation was observed with nine out of nine S. epidermidis donor strains which were mated with either S. epidermidis or S. aureus recipient strains. These conjugative Gmr plasmids were unable to comobilize a smaller (15-kb) plasmid present in all but two S. aureus clinical isolates. Many of the conjugative Gmr plasmids also carried genetic determinants for kanamycin, tobramycin, neomycin, and ethidium bromide resistance, and for beta-lactamase synthesis. EcoRI restriction endonuclease digests of the S. aureus Gmr conjugative plasmids revealed three different digestion patterns. Four EcoRI restriction endonuclease digestion fragments of 15, 11.4, 6.3, and 4.6 kb in size were common to all plasmids. These plasmids and conjugative Gmr staphylococcal plasmids from other geographical regions shared restriction digestion fragments of similar molecular weights. DNA hybridization with biotinylated S. aureus plasmid pIZ7814 DNA revealed a high degree of homology among these plasmids. A 50.9-kb plasmid from one of the nonconjugative S. epidermidis clinical isolates showed homology with the probe DNA but lacked a portion of a 6.3-kb fragment which was present in all conjugative plasmids and believed to carry much genetic information for conjugation.     

Staphylococcus aureus subvert autophagy for induction of caspase-independent host cell death

Staphylococcus aureus is a common bacterial etiology of serious infectious diseases. S. aureus can invade various types of non-professional phagocytes to produce host cell death. We show here that shortly after invasion of HeLa cells S. aureus transit to autophagosomes was characterized by double membranes and co-localization with LC3. S. aureus were not able to replicate and produce cell death in autophagy-deficient atg5-/- mouse embryonic fibroblasts. S. aureus-containing autophagosomes do not acidify nor do they acquire lysosome-associated membrane protein-2, indicating that S. aureus inhibits autophagosome maturation and fusion with lysosomes. Eventually, S. aureus escape from autophagosomes into the cytoplasm, which results in caspase-independent host cell death. S. aureus strains deficient for agr, a global regulator of S. aureus virulence, were not targeted by autophagy and did not produce host-cell death. Autophagy induction by rapamycin restored both replication and cytotoxicity of agr-deficient S. aureus strains, indicating that an agr-regulated factor(s) is required for autophagy-mediated cytotoxicity. The results of this study suggest that rapid induction of autophagy is essential for S. aureus replication, escape into the cytoplasm, and host cell killing.     

金黄葡萄球菌fnbB基因的克隆及在大肠杆菌中的表达

金黄色葡萄球菌（Staphylococcus aureus）是引起奶牛乳房炎主要致病菌之一,主要通过其菌体表面的黏附素侵入寄主细胞引起疾病,为奶牛业造成巨大损失。金黄色葡萄球菌表面蛋白纤连蛋白结合蛋白(fibronectin-binding protein,FnBP)是其关键的黏附因子,在研制抗金黄色葡萄球菌的新型疫苗中占有重要地位.本文根据GenBank中纤连蛋白结合蛋白B基因（fnbB）序列设计特异性引物,以金黄葡萄球菌基因组DNA为模板,进行PCR扩增,获得3 458 bp 的DNA片段。使用T-A克隆技术,将PCR产物克隆至pGEM T easy Vector中,成功构建出了克隆质粒pGEM-fnbB。以 BamHI和XhoI 双酶切pGEM-fnbB和pET28a(+),并将纯化的基因fnbB 亚克隆至pET28a(+)中,构建出原核表达质粒pET28a-fnbB,并将其转化至E.coli BL21(DE3)感受态细胞中,经1 mmol/L的IPTG诱导和SDS-PAGE分析,在约165 ku 处出现了与预期目的蛋白相一致的外源蛋白带,Western blot分析结果表明该蛋白具有金黄葡萄球菌的抗原性。金黄葡萄球菌pET28a-fnbB成功表达为金黄葡萄球菌引起的奶牛乳房炎的诊断和研究新型疫苗奠定基础。     

Genome sequence of Staphylococcus lugdunensis N920143 allows identification of putative colonization and virulence factors

Staphylococcus lugdunensis is an opportunistic pathogen related to Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. The genome sequence of S. lugdunensis strain N920143 has been compared with other staphylococci, and genes were identified that could promote survival of S. lugdunensis on human skin and pathogenesis of infections. Staphylococcus lugdunensis lacks virulence factors that characterize S. aureus and harbours a smaller number of genes encoding surface proteins. It is the only staphylococcal species other than S. aureus that possesses a locus encoding iron-regulated surface determinant (Isd) proteins involved in iron acquisition from haemoglobin.     

Staphylococcus aureus: superbug, super genome?

Staphylococcus aureus is a common cause of infection in both hospitals and the community, and it is becoming increasingly virulent and resistant to antibiotics. The recent sequencing of seven strains of S. aureus provides unprecedented information about its genome diversity. Subtle differences in core (stable) regions of the genome have been exploited by multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) to understand S. aureus population structure. Dramatic differences in the carriage and spread of accessory genes, including those involved in virulence and resistance, contribute to the emergence of new strains with healthcare implications. Understanding the differences between S. aureus genomes and the controls that govern these changes is helping to improve our knowledge of S. aureus pathogenicity and to predict the evolution of super-superbugs.     

Alternative therapies in Staphylococcus aureus diseases

Staphylococcus aureus is a common pathogen responsible for health-care-associated infections as well as community acquired ones. It is the etiological factor of a wide spectrum of infections. Therapeutic problems are caused by resistance of S. aureus to many antibiotics, specifically to methicillin (methicillin-resistant S. aureus, MRSA). In such cases a limited spectrum of antibiotics may be used and prolonged hospitalization is costly. Hence, there is an urgent need for the development of alternative antibiotic therapeutics. This work reviews the current knowledge concerning prospective treatment of staphylococcal diseases.     

Deoxyribonucleic acid sequence common to staphylococcal and streptococcal plasmids which specify erythromycin resistance.

Plasmids from erythromycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sanguis, and Streptococcus faecalis show deoxyribonucleic acid sequence homology. The homologous sequences can be localized to specific restriction endonuclease fragments, which in the case of S. aureus plasmid pI258 involves a single fragment from either EcoRI or HindIII digest known to contain the erythromycin resistance determinant. Complementary ribonucleic acid probes prepared from S. aureus plasmid pI258 and S. sanguis plasmid pAM77 also hybridize to specific fragments in restriction endonuclease digests of deoxyribonucleic acid from erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus progenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae. These studies suggest a common origin for a class of erythromycin resistance determinants in unrelated strains of pathogenic bacteria for which exchange of genetic material has not been demonstrated.     

过氧化氢干雾对生物安全柜微环境表面消毒效果的研究

生物安全实验室微环境消毒是控制实验室污染的重要环节。过氧化氢广泛用于病原微生物实验室微环境消毒,但其对不同病原微生物的消毒效果有待研究。本文研究了过氧化氢干雾（粒径％10μm）以不同消毒程序对生物安全柜表面常见微生物的消毒效果。结果显示,在生物安全柜内采用优化的消毒程序（发散循环8次,每次1min,达60ppm后,静置消毒2h）,过氧化氢干雾可完全杀灭1×106CFU枯草芽胞杆菌、嗜热脂肪芽胞杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、表皮葡萄球菌、耻垢分枝杆菌,以及1×106CFU大肠埃希菌。然而,当金黄色葡萄球菌、表皮葡萄球菌、耻垢分枝杆菌浓度达1×107CFU时,过氧化氢干雾无法完全杀灭。因此,建议在进行过氧化氢干雾消毒时,应先用消毒剂处理,以期彻底杀灭生物安全柜微环境中污染的病原微生物。     

Inhibition of virulence factor expression in Staphylococcus aureus by the Staphylococcus epidermidis agr pheromone and derivatives.

The agr quorum-sensing system in Staphylococci controls the production of surface proteins and exoproteins. In the pathogenic species Staphylococcus aureus, these proteins include many virulence factors. The extracellular signal of the quorum-sensing system is a thiolactone-containing peptide pheromone, whose sequence varies among the different staphylococcal strains. We demonstrate that a synthetic Staphylococcus epidermidis pheromone is a competent inhibitor of the Staphylococcus aureus agr system. Derivatives of the pheromone, in which the N-terminus or the cyclic bond structure was changed, were synthesized and their biological activity was determined. The presence of a correct N-terminus and a thiolactone were absolute prerequisites for an agr-activating effect in S. epidermidis, whereas inhibition of the S. aureus agr system was less dependent on the original structure. Our results show that effective quorum-sensing blockers that suppress the expression of virulence factors in S. aureus can be designed based on the S. epidermidis pheromone.     

Identification and discrimination of Staphylococcus aureus strains using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry

Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen frequently resistant to a wide range of antibiotics. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains are common nosocomial pathogens that pose a world-wide problem. Rapid and accurate discrimination between methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus is essential for appropriate therapeutic management and timely intervention for infection control. We report here the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for monitoring the bacterial fingerprints expressed by two well characterized S. aureus strains ATCC 29213 (MSSA) and ATCC 43330 (MRSA). Consistent strain-specific data were obtained from subcultures analyzed over a period of three months as well as after changing the growth media from Mueller-Hinton to blood agar indicating the reliability of the method. The bacterial fingerprints of these two strains were compared to independent clinical isolates of S. aureus. A uniform signature profile for MRSA could not be identified. However, the bacterial fingerprints obtained proved to be specific for any given strain. This study demonstrates that MALDI-TOF MS is a powerful method for rapid identification of clonal strains of S. aureus, which might be useful for tracking nosocomial outbreaks of MRSA and for epidemiologic studies of infections diseases in general.     

Daptomycin efficacy in the central nervous system of a patient with disseminated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection: a case report

ABSTRACT: INTRODUCTION: Staphylococcus aureus has emerged as a major nosocomial pathogen in the last decades and also represents the second most common pathogen isolated from patients in outpatient settings. Although methicillin-resistant S.aureus infections were traditionally limited to hospitals, community-associated cases of methicillin-resistant S.aureus infections have been reported. In our case, we observed an unexpected event during treatment. CASE PRESENTATION: A 60-year-old Caucasian man developed fever and multiple muscle and brain abscesses caused by Panton-Valentine leukocidin-negative community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus. CONCLUSION: Although our patient was given antimicrobials active against the isolated methicillin-resistant S. aureus strain, it was only after the introduction of daptomycin that his skin, soft tissue and muscle lesions and also brain manifestations improved.     

医院感染葡萄球菌菌种变迁与耐药性近况

目的：了解近9年来医院感染葡萄球菌菌种的变迁与近3年来葡萄球菌药状况。方法：1993年1月至2001年12月我院传染病科等13科室住院病人的各种标本采用血琼脂培养,所分离的葡萄球菌采用美国DADE公司生产的MICROSCAN WALKAY-40全自动微生物分析仪鉴定到种及其亚种。药敏试验药物有青霉素、苯唑西林、氨苄西林、哌拉西林、阿莫西林／克拉维酸（阿莫仙）、头孢唑啉、头孢噻肟、头孢哌酮／舒巴坦（舒普深）、庆大霉素、复方新诺明、环丙沙星、氧氟沙星、利福平、万古霉素、红霉素、林可霉素、四环素、伊米配能／西司他丁（泰能）共18种。采用液体稀释法测定每株葡萄球菌对受试药物的最小抑菌浓度（MIC）,操作按说明书进行。质控菌ATCC25923。依据新近NCCLS标准判读结果。结果：1993年至1998年分离的葡萄球菌中,金黄色葡萄球菌（金葡萄）占71.43%,凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌（CNS）占28.57%,包括表皮葡萄球菌（表葡菌）、腐生葡萄球菌、里昂葡萄球菌和头状葡萄球菌4种。1999年至2001年分离的424株葡萄球菌中,金葡菌仅占29.01%,CNS增至13种,占70.995,以表葡菌、溶血葡萄球菌、松鼠葡萄球菌为主。近3年来分离的各种葡萄球菌甲氧西林耐药率在73.03%-100%之间,除对舒普深、复方新诺明、利福平和万古霉素较敏感外,对其余抗菌药物的耐药率均超过60％,以金葡菌、溶血葡萄球菌、松鼠葡萄球菌的耐药率为最高。MRS耐药率普遍高于MSS,且均呈多重耐药。5.42%(23/424)菌株万古霉素MIC＞16mg/L,除1株为MSCNS外,其余22株均为MRS。结论：3年来医院感染葡萄球菌菌种构成比发生了显著变化,以CNS为主。对抗菌药物呈多重耐药,部分菌株对万古霉素敏感性降低,应予警惕。