Structural Basis for the cAMP-dependent Gating in the Human HCN4 Channel

Hyperpolarization-activated cAMP-regulated (HCN) channels play important physiological roles in both cardiovascular and central nervous systems. Among the four HCN isoforms, HCN2 and HCN4 show high expression levels in the human heart, with HCN4 being the major cardiac isoform. The previously published crystal structure of the mouse HCN2 (mHCN2) C-terminal fragment, including the C-linker and the cyclic-nucleotide binding domain (CNBD), has provided many insights into cAMP-dependent gating in HCN channels. However, structures of other mammalian HCN channel isoforms have been lacking. Here we used a combination of approaches including structural biology, biochemistry, and electrophysiology to study cAMP-dependent gating in HCN4 channel. First we solved the crystal structure of the C-terminal fragment of human HCN4 (hHCN4) channel at 2.4 Å. Overall we observed a high similarity between mHCN2 and hHCN4 crystal structures. Functional comparison between two isoforms revealed that compared with mHCN2, the hHCN4 protein exhibited marked different contributions to channel function, such as a ∼3-fold reduction in the response to cAMP. Guided by structural differences in the loop region between β4 and β5 strands, we identified residues that could partially account for the differences in response to cAMP between mHCN2 and hHCN4 proteins. Moreover, upon cAMP binding, the hHCN4 C-terminal protein exerts a much prolonged effect in channel deactivation that could have significant physiological contributions.     

Integrated allosteric model of voltage gating of HCN channels

Hyperpolarization-activated (pacemaker) channels are dually gated by negative voltage and intracellular cAMP. Kinetics of native cardiac f-channels are not compatible with HH gating, and require closed/open multistate models. We verified that members of the HCN channel family (mHCN1, hHCN2, hHCN4) also have properties not complying with HH gating, such as sigmoidal activation and deactivation, activation deviating from fixed power of an exponential, removal of activation "delay" by preconditioning hyperpolarization. Previous work on native channels has indicated that the shifting action of cAMP on the open probability (Po) curve can be accounted for by an allosteric model, whereby cAMP binds more favorably to open than closed channels. We therefore asked whether not only cAMP-dependent, but also voltage-dependent gating of hyperpolarization-activated channels could be explained by an allosteric model. We hypothesized that HCN channels are tetramers and that each subunit comprises a voltage sensor moving between "reluctant" and "willing" states, whereas voltage sensors are independently gated by voltage, channel closed/open transitions occur allosterically. These hypotheses led to a multistate scheme comprising five open and five closed channel states. We estimated model rate constants by fitting first activation delay curves and single exponential time constant curves, and then individual activation/deactivation traces. By simply using different sets of rate constants, the model accounts for qualitative and quantitative aspects of voltage gating of all three HCN isoforms investigated, and allows an interpretation of the different kinetic properties of different isoforms. For example, faster kinetics of HCN1 relative to HCN2/HCN4 are attributable to higher HCN1 voltage sensors' rates and looser voltage-independent interactions between subunits in closed/open transitions. It also accounts for experimental evidence that reduction of sensors' positive charge leads to negative voltage shifts of Po curve, with little change of curve slope. HCN voltage gating thus involves two processes: voltage sensor gating and allosteric opening/closing.     

C terminus-mediated control of voltage and cAMP gating of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels

The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) family of "pacemaker" channels includes 4 isoforms, the kinetics and cAMP-induced modulation of which differ quantitatively. Because HCN isoforms are highly homologous in the central region, but diverge more substantially in the N and C termini, we asked whether these latter regions could contribute to the determination of channel properties. To this aim, we analyzed activation/deactivation kinetics and the response to cAMP of heterologously expressed isoforms mHCN1 and rbHCN4 and verified that mHCN1 has much faster kinetics and lower cAMP sensitivity than rbHCN4. We then constructed rbHCN4 chimeras by replacing either the N or the C terminus, or both, with the analogous domains from mHCN1. We found that: 1) replacement of the N terminus (chimera N1-4) did not substantially modify either the kinetics or cAMP dependence of wild-type channels; 2) replacement of the C terminus, on the contrary, resulted in a chimeric channel (4-C1), the kinetics of which were strongly accelerated compared with rbHCN4, and that was fully insensitive to cAMP; 3) replacement of both N and C termini led to the same results as replacement of the C terminus alone. These results indicate that the C terminus of rbHCN4 contributes to the regulation of voltage- and cAMP-dependent channel gating, possibly through interaction with other intracellular regions not belonging to the N terminus.     

Involvement of the S4-S5 linker and the C-linker domain regions to voltage-gating in plant Shaker channels: Comparison with animal HCN and Kv channels

Among the different transport systems present in plant cells, Shaker channels constitute the major pathway for K⁺ in the plasma membrane. Plant Shaker channels are members of the 6 transmembrane-1 pore (6TM-1P) cation channel superfamily as the animal Shaker (Kv) and HCN channels. All these channels are voltage-gated K⁺ channels: Kv channels are outward-rectifiers, opened at depolarized voltages and HCN channels are inward-rectifiers, opened by membrane hyperpolarization. Among plant Shaker channels, we can find outward-rectifiers, inward-rectifiers and also weak-rectifiers, with weak voltage dependence. Despite the absence of crystal structures of plant Shaker channels, functional analyses coupled to homology modeling, mostly based on Kv and HCN crystals, have permitted the identification of several regions contributing to plant Shaker channel gating. In the present mini-review, we make an update on the voltage-gating mechanism of plant Shaker channels which seem to be comparable to that proposed for HCN channels.     

Characterization of stretch-activated cation current in coronary smooth muscle cells

Stretch-activated ion currents were recorded from vascular smooth muscle (VSM) after enzymatic isolation of single cells from porcine coronary arterioles. Patch pipettes were used to record whole cell current and control cell length. Under voltage clamp in physiological saline solution, an inward cation current (I(CAT)) was activated by 105--135% longitudinal stretch. I(CAT) coincided with an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. Under current clamp, membrane depolarization was induced by stretch. The magnitude of I(CAT) varied from -0.8 to -6.9 pA/pF at a holding potential of -60 mV. I(CAT) was graded with stretch, inactivated on release, and could be repeatedly induced. A potassium current (I(K)) activated in unstretched cells by depolarization was also enhanced by stretch. In Ca(2+)-free bath solution, stretch-induced enhancement of I(K) was blocked, but I(CAT) was still present. Hexamethyleneamiloride (50 microM), a reputed inhibitor of mechanosensitive channels, blocked I(CAT) and the stretch-induced increase in I(K) but not basal I(K). Grammostolla spatulata venom (1:100,000) blocked basal I(K), blocked stretch-induced increases in I(K), and blocked I(CAT). Iberiotoxin, a specific Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel blocker, did not alter I(CAT) but blocked the stretch-induced increase in I(K) and increased the magnitude of stretch-induced depolarization. We concluded that longitudinal stretch directly activates a cation current and secondarily activates a Ca(2+)-activated K(+) current in isolated coronary myocytes. Although these two currents would partially counteract each other, the predominance of I(CAT) at physiological potentials is likely to explain the depolarization and contraction observed in intact coronary VSM during pressure elevation.     

Nav channel mechanosensitivity: activation and inactivation accelerate reversibly with stretch

Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav) are modulated by many bilayer mechanical amphiphiles, but whether, like other voltage-gated channels (Kv, HCN, Cav), they respond to physical bilayer deformations is unknown. We expressed human heart Nav1.5 pore alpha-subunit in oocytes (where, unlike alphaNav1.4, alphaNav1.5 exhibits normal kinetics) and measured small macroscopic currents in cell-attached patches. Pipette pressure was used to reversibly stretch the membrane for comparison of I(Na)(t) before, during, and after stretch. At all voltages, and in a dose-dependent fashion, stretch accelerated the I(Na)(t) time course. The sign of membrane curvature was not relevant. Typical stretch stimuli reversibly accelerated both activation and inactivation by approximately 1.4-fold; normalization of peak I(Na)(t) followed by temporal scaling ( approximately 1.30- to 1.85-fold) resulted in full overlap of the stretch/no-stretch traces. Evidently the rate-limiting outward voltage sensor motion in the Nav1.5 activation path (as in Kv1) accelerated with stretch. Stretch-accelerated inactivation occurred even with activation saturated, so an independently stretch-modulated inactivation transition is also a possibility. Since Nav1.5 channel-stretch modulation was both reliable and reversible, and required stretch stimuli no more intense than what typically activates putative mechanotransducer channels (e.g., stretch-activated TRPC1-based currents), Nav channels join the ranks of putative mechanotransducers. It is noteworthy that at voltages near the activation threshold, moderate stretch increased the peak I(Na) amplitude approximately 1.5-fold. It will be important to determine whether stretch-modulated Nav current contributes to cardiac arrhythmias, to mechanosensory responses in interstitial cells of Cajal, to touch receptor responses, and to neuropathic (i.e., hypermechanosensitive) and/or normal pain reception.     

S4 movement in a mammalian HCN channel

Hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels (HCN) mediate an inward cation current that contributes to spontaneous rhythmic firing activity in the heart and the brain. HCN channels share sequence homology with depolarization-activated Kv channels, including six transmembrane domains and a positively charged S4 segment. S4 has been shown to function as the voltage sensor and to undergo a voltage-dependent movement in the Shaker K+ channel (a Kv channel) and in the spHCN channel (an HCN channel from sea urchin). However, it is still unknown whether S4 undergoes a similar movement in mammalian HCN channels. In this study, we used cysteine accessibility to determine whether there is voltage-dependent S4 movement in a mammalian HCN1 channel. Six cysteine mutations (R247C, T249C, I251C, S253C, L254C, and S261C) were used to assess S4 movement of the heterologously expressed HCN1 channel in Xenopus oocytes. We found a state-dependent accessibility for four S4 residues: T249C and S253C from the extracellular solution, and L254C and S261C from the internal solution. We conclude that S4 moves in a voltage-dependent manner in HCN1 channels, similar to its movement in the spHCN channel. This S4 movement suggests that the role of S4 as a voltage sensor is conserved in HCN channels. In addition, to determine the reason for the different cAMP modulation and the different voltage range of activation in spHCN channels compared with HCN1 channels, we constructed a COOH-terminal-deleted spHCN. This channel appeared to be similar to a COOH-terminal-deleted HCN1 channel, suggesting that the main functional differences between spHCN and HCN1 channels are due to differences in their COOH termini or in the interaction between the COOH terminus and the rest of the channel protein in spHCN channels compared with HCN1 channels.     

Stretch-activation and stretch-inactivation of Shaker-IR, a voltage-gated K+ channel

Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels are ubiquitous in eukaryotic cell types but baffling because of their contentious physiologies and diverse molecular identities. In some cellular contexts mechanically responsive ion channels are undoubtedly mechanosensory transducers, but it does not follow that all MS channels are mechanotransducers. Here we demonstrate, for an archetypical voltage-gated channel (Shaker-IR; inactivation-removed), robust MS channel behavior. In oocyte patches subjected to stretch, Shaker-IR exhibits both stretch-activation (SA) and stretch-inactivation (SI). SA is seen when prestretch P(open) (set by voltage) is low, and SI is seen when it is high. The stretch effects occur in cell-attached and excised patches at both macroscopic and single-channel levels. Were one ignorant of this particular MS channel's identity, one might propose it had been designed as a sophisticated reporter of bilayer tension. Knowing Shaker-IR's provenance and biology, however, such a suggestion would be absurd. We argue that the MS responses of Shaker-IR reflect not overlooked "mechano-gating" specializations of Shaker, but a common property of multiconformation membrane proteins: inherent susceptibility to bilayer tension. The molecular diversity of MS channels indicates that susceptibility to bilayer tension is hard to design out of dynamic membrane proteins. Presumably the cost of being insusceptible to bilayer tension often outweighs the benefits, especially where the in situ milieu of channels can provide mechanoprotection.     

Mechanosensitive channel activity and F-actin organization in cholesterol-depleted human leukaemia cells

This study focuses on the functional role of cellular cholesterol in the regulation of mechanosensitive cation channels activated by stretch in human leukaemia K562 cells. The patch-clamp method was employed to examine the effect of methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD), a synthetic cholesterol-sequestering agent, on stretch-activated single currents. We found that cholesterol-depleting treatment with MbetaCD resulted in a suppression of the activity of mechanosensitive channels without a change in the unitary conductance. The probability that the channel was open significantly decreased after treatment with MbetaCD. Fluorescent microscopy revealed F-actin reorganization, possibly involving actin assembly, after incubation of the cells with MbetaCD. We suggest that suppression of mechanosensitive channel activation in cholesterol-depleted leukaemia cells is due to F-actin rearrangement, presumably induced by lipid raft destruction. Our observations are consistent with the notion that stretch-activated cation channels in eukaryotic cells are regulated by the membrane-cytoskeleton complex rather than by tension developed purely in the lipid bilayer.     

Basis for allosteric open-state stabilization of voltage-gated potassium channels by intracellular cations

The open state of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels is associated with an increased stability relative to the pre-open closed states and is reflected by a slowing of OFF gating currents after channel opening. The basis for this stabilization is usually assigned to intrinsic structural features of the open pore. We have studied the gating currents of Kv1.2 channels and found that the stabilization of the open state is instead conferred largely by the presence of cations occupying the inner cavity of the channel. Large impermeant intracellular cations such as N-methyl-d-glucamine (NMG⁺) and tetraethylammonium cause severe slowing of channel closure and gating currents, whereas the smaller cation, Cs⁺, displays a more moderate effect on voltage sensor return. A nonconducting mutant also displays significant open state stabilization in the presence of intracellular K⁺, suggesting that K⁺ ions in the intracellular cavity also slow pore closure. A mutation in the S6 segment used previously to enlarge the inner cavity (Kv1.2-I402C) relieves the slowing of OFF gating currents in the presence of the large NMG⁺ ion, suggesting that the interaction site for stabilizing ions resides within the inner cavity and creates an energetic barrier to pore closure. The physiological significance of ionic occupation of the inner cavity is underscored by the threefold slowing of ionic current deactivation in the wild-type channel compared with Kv1.2-I402C. The data suggest that internal ions, including physiological concentrations of K⁺, allosterically regulate the deactivation kinetics of the Kv1.2 channel by impairing pore closure and limiting the return of voltage sensors. This may represent a primary mechanism by which Kv channel deactivation kinetics is linked to ion permeation and reveals a novel role for channel inner cavity residues to indirectly regulate voltage sensor dynamics.     

Separable gating mechanisms in a Mammalian pacemaker channel

Despite permeability to both K(+) and Na(+), hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) pacemaker channels contain the K(+) channel signature sequence, GYG, within the selectivity filter of the pore. Here, we show that this region is involved in regulating gating in a mouse isoform of the pacemaker channel (mHCN2). A mutation in the GYG sequence of the selectivity filter (G404S) had different effects on the two components of the wild-type current; it eliminated the slowly activating current (I(f)) but, surprisingly, did not affect the instantaneous current (I(inst)). Confocal imaging and immunocytochemistry showed G404S protein on the periphery of the cells, consistent with the presence of channels on the plasma membrane. Experiments with the wild-type channel showed that the rate of I(f) deactivation and I(f) amplitude had a parallel dependence on the ratio of K(+)/Na(+) driving forces. In addition, the amplitude of fully activated I(f), unlike I(inst), was not well predicted by equal and independent flow of K(+) and Na(+). The data are consistent with two separable gating mechanisms associated with pacemaker channels: one (I(f)) that is sensitive to voltage, to a mutation in the selectivity filter, and to driving forces for permeating cations and another (I(inst)) that is insensitive to these influences.     

Movements near the gate of a hyperpolarization-activated cation channel

Hyperpolarization-activated cation (HCN) channels regulate pacemaking activity in cardiac cells and neurons. Like the related depolarization-activated K+ channels (Kv channels), HCN channels use an intracellular activation gate to regulate access to an inner cavity, lined by the S6 transmembrane regions, which leads to the selectivity filter near the extracellular surface. Here we describe two types of metal interactions with substituted cysteines in the S6, which alter the voltage-controlled movements of the gate. At one position (L466), substitution of cysteine in all four subunits allows Cd2+ ions at nanomolar concentration to stabilize the open state (a "lock-open" effect). This effect depends on native histidines at a nearby position (H462); the lock-open effect can be abolished by changing the histidines to tyrosines, or enhanced by changing them to cysteines. Unlike a similar effect in Kv channels, this effect depends on a Cd2+ bridge between 462 and 466 in the same subunit. Cysteine substitution at another position (Q468) produces two effects of Cd2+: both a lock-open effect and a dramatic slowing of channel activation-a "lock-closed" effect. The two effects can be separated, because the lock-open effect depends on the histidine at position 462. The novel lock-closed effect results from stabilization of the closed state by the binding of up to four Cd2+ ions. During the opening conformational change, the S6 apparently moves from one position in which the 468C cysteines can bind four Cd2+ ions, possibly as a cluster of cysteines and cadmium ions near the central axis of the pore, to another position (or flexible range of positions) where either 466C or 468C can bind Cd2+ in association with the histidine at 462.     

I SA channel complexes include four subunits each of DPP6 and Kv4.2

Kv4 potassium channels produce rapidly inactivating currents that regulate excitability of muscles and nerves. To reconstitute the neuronal A-type current I(SA), Kv4 subunits assemble with DPP6, a single transmembrane domain accessory subunit. DPP6 alters function-accelerating activation, inactivation, and recovery from inactivation-and increases surface expression. We sought here to determine the stoichiometry of Kv4 and DPP6 in complexes using functional and biochemical methods. First, wild type channels formed from subunit monomers were compared with channels carrying subunits linked in tandem to enforce 4:4 and 4:2 assemblies (Kv4.2-DPP6 and Kv4.2-Kv4.2-DPP6). Next, channels were overexpressed and purified so that the molar ratio of subunits in complexes could be assessed by direct amino acid analysis. Both biophysical and biochemical methods indicate that I(SA) channels carry four subunits each of Kv4.2 and DPP6.     

Probability Fluxes and Transition Paths in a Markovian Model Describing Complex Subunit Cooperativity in HCN2 Channels

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-modulated (HCN) channels are voltage-gated tetrameric cation channels that generate electrical rhythmicity in neurons and cardiomyocytes. Activation can be enhanced by the binding of adenosine-3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) to an intracellular cyclic nucleotide binding domain. Based on previously determined rate constants for a complex Markovian model describing the gating of homotetrameric HCN2 channels, we analyzed probability fluxes within this model, including unidirectional probability fluxes and the probability flux along transition paths. The time-dependent probability fluxes quantify the contributions of all 13 transitions of the model to channel activation. The binding of the first, third and fourth ligand evoked robust channel opening whereas the binding of the second ligand obstructed channel opening similar to the empty channel. Analysis of the net probability fluxes in terms of the transition path theory revealed pronounced hysteresis for channel activation and deactivation. These results provide quantitative insight into the complex interaction of the four structurally equal subunits, leading to non-equality in their function.     

A role for DPPX modulating external TEA sensitivity of Kv4 channels

Shal-type (Kv4) channels are expressed in a large variety of tissues, where they contribute to transient voltage-dependent K+ currents. Kv4 are the molecular correlate of the A-type current of neurons (I(SA)), the fast component of I(TO) current in the heart, and also of the oxygen-sensitive K+ current (K(O2)) in rabbit carotid body (CB) chemoreceptor cells. The enormous degree of variability in the physiological properties of Kv4-mediated currents can be attributable to the complexity of their regulation together with the large number of ancillary subunits and scaffolding proteins that associate with Kv4 proteins to modify their trafficking and their kinetic properties. Among those, KChIPs and DPPX proteins have been demonstrated to be integral components of I(SA) and I(TO) currents, as their coexpression with Kv4 subunits recapitulates the kinetics of native currents. Here, we explore the presence and functional contribution of DPPX to K(O2) currents in rabbit CB chemoreceptor cells by using DPPX functional knockdown with siRNA. Additionally, we investigate if the presence of DPPX endows Kv4 channels with new pharmacological properties, as we have observed anomalous tetraethylammonium (TEA) sensitivity in the native K(O2) currents. DPPX association with Kv4 channels induced an increased TEA sensitivity both in heterologous expression systems and in CB chemoreceptor cells. Moreover, TEA application to Kv4-DPPX heteromultimers leads to marked kinetic effects that could be explained by an augmented closed-state inactivation. Our data suggest that DPPX proteins are integral components of K(O2) currents, and that their association with Kv4 subunits modulate the pharmacological profile of the heteromultimers.     

Bimodal regulation of an Elk subfamily K+ channel by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) regulates Shaker K⁺ channels and voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels in a bimodal fashion by inhibiting voltage activation while stabilizing open channels. Bimodal regulation is conserved in hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide–gated (HCN) channels, but voltage activation is enhanced while the open channel state is destabilized. The proposed sites of PIP₂ regulation in these channels include the voltage-sensor domain (VSD) and conserved regions of the proximal cytoplasmic C terminus. Relatively little is known about PIP₂ regulation of Ether-á-go-go (EAG) channels, a metazoan-specific family of K⁺ channels that includes three gene subfamilies, Eag (Kv10), Erg (Kv11), and Elk (Kv12). We examined PIP₂ regulation of the Elk subfamily potassium channel human Elk1 to determine whether bimodal regulation is conserved within the EAG K⁺ channel family. Open-state stabilization by PIP₂ has been observed in human Erg1, but the proposed site of regulation in the distal C terminus is not conserved among EAG family channels. We show that PIP₂ strongly inhibits voltage activation of Elk1 but also stabilizes the open state. This stabilization produces slow deactivation and a mode shift in voltage gating after activation. However, removal of PIP₂ has the net effect of enhancing Elk1 activation. R347 in the linker between the VSD and pore (S4–S5 linker) and R479 near the S6 activation gate are required for PIP₂ to inhibit voltage activation. The ability of PIP₂ to stabilize the open state also requires these residues, suggesting an overlap in sites central to the opposing effects of PIP₂ on channel gating. Open-state stabilization in Elk1 requires the N-terminal eag domain (PAS domain + Cap), and PIP₂-dependent stabilization is enhanced by a conserved basic residue (K5) in the Cap. Our data shows that PIP₂ can bimodally regulate voltage gating in EAG family channels, as has been proposed for Shaker and HCN channels. PIP₂ regulation appears fundamentally different for Elk and KCNQ channels, suggesting that, although both channel types can regulate action potential threshold in neurons, they are not functionally redundant.     

Physiological role of dendrotoxin-sensitive K+ channels in the rat cerebellar Purkinje neurons

To understand the contribution of potassium (K+) channels, particularly alpha-dendrotoxin (D-type)-sensitive K+ channels (Kv.1, Kv1.2 or Kv1.6 subunits), to the generation of neuronal spike output we must have detailed information of the functional role of these channels in the neuronal membrane. Conventional intracellular recording methods in current clamp mode were used to identify the role of alpha-dendrotoxin (alpha-DTX)-sensitive K+ channel currents in shaping the spike output and modulation of neuronal properties of cerebellar Purkinje neurons (PCs) in slices. Addition of alpha-DTX revealed that D-type K+ channels play an important role in the shaping of Purkinje neuronal firing behavior. Repetitive firing capability of PCs was increased following exposure to artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) containing alpha-DTX, so that in response to the injection of 0.6 nA depolarizing current pulse of 600 ms, the number of action potentials insignificantly increased from 15 in the presence of 4-AP to 29 action potentials per second after application of DTX following pretreatment with 4-AP. These results indicate that D-type K+ channels (Kv.1, Kv1.2 or Kv1.6 subunits) may contribute to the spike frequency adaptation in PCs. Our findings suggest that the activation of voltage-dependent K+ channels (D and A types) markedly affect the firing pattern of PCs.     

Molecular cloning and functional expression of Xenopus laevis oocyte ATP-activated P2X4 channels

All cells contain mechanosensitive ion channels, yet the molecular identities of most are unknown. The purpose of our study was to determine what encodes the Xenopus oocyte's mechanosensitive cation channel. Based on the idea that homologues to known channels might contribute to the stretch channels, we screened a Xenopus oocyte cDNA library with cation channel probes. Whereas other screens were negative, P2X probes identified six isoforms of the P2X4 subtype of ATP-gated channels. From RNase protection assays and RT-PCR, we demonstrated that Xenopus oocytes express P2X4 mRNA. In expression studies, four isoforms produced functional ATP-gated ion channels; however, one, xP2X4c, had a conserved cysteine replaced by a tyrosine and failed to give rise to functional channels. By changing the tyrosine to a cysteine, we showed that this cysteine was crucial for function. We raised antibodies against a Xenopus P2X4 C-terminal peptide to investigate xP2X4 protein expression. This affinity purified anti-xP2X4 antibody recognized a 56 kDa glycosylated Xenopus P2X4 protein expressed in stably transfected HEK-293 cells and in P2X4 cDNA injected oocytes overexpressing the cloned P2X4 channels; however, it failed to recognize proteins in control, uninjected oocytes. This suggests that P2X4 channels and mechanosensitive cation channels are not linked. Instead, oocyte P2X4 mRNA may be part of the stored pool of stable maternal mRNA that remains untranslated until later developmental stages.     

Kv11.1 (ERG1) K+ channels localize in cholesterol and sphingolipid enriched membranes and are modulated by membrane cholesterol

The localization of ion channels to specific membrane microdomains can impact the functional properties of channels and their role in cellular physiology. We determined the membrane localization of human Kv11.1 (hERG1) alpha-subunit protein, which underlies the rapidly activating, delayed rectifier K(+) current (I(Kr)) in the heart. Immunocytochemistry and membrane fractionation using discontinuous sucrose density gradients of adult canine ventricular tissue showed that Kv11.1 channel protein localized to both the cell surface and T-tubular sarcolemma. Furthermore, density gradient membrane fractionation using detergent (Triton X-100) and non-detergent (OptiPrep) methods from canine ventricular myocytes or HEK293 cells demonstrated that Kv11.1 protein, along with MiRP1 and Kv7.1 (KCNQ1) proteins, localize in cholesterol and sphingolipid enriched membrane fractions. In HEK293 cells, Kv11.1 channels, but not long QT-associated mutant G601S-Kv11.1 channels, also localized to cholesterol and sphingolipid enriched membrane fractions. Depletion of membrane cholesterol from HEK293 cells expressing Kv11.1 channels using methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD) caused a positive shift of the voltage dependence of activation and an acceleration of deactivation kinetics of Kv11.1 current (I(Kv11.1)). Cholesterol loading of HEK293 cells reduced the steep voltage dependence of I(Kv11.1) activation and accelerated the inactivation kinetics of I(Kv11.1). Incubation of neonatal mouse myocytes in MbetaCD also accelerated the deactivation kinetics of I(Kr). We conclude that Kv11.1 protein localizes in cholesterol and sphingolipid enriched membranes and that membrane cholesterol can modulate I(Kv11.1) and I(Kr).