雌激素的心脏保护作用——与β1-肾上腺素受体的相互作用及其信号通路

雌激素是女性体内主要的类固醇性激素.对于心肌缺血性伤害,切除卵巢的成年雌性大鼠在β-肾上腺素受体激动时,比正常雌性大鼠呈现更严重的心肌损伤;而去卵巢后的雌激素替补组大鼠对β-肾上腺素受体激动时心肌缺血性伤害的反应则又回复到正常雌性大鼠水平,这为雌激素对抗缺血性伤害的心脏保护作用提供了证据.雌激素的这种保护作用是通过下调β1-肾上腺素受体的表达来实现的.也有研究证明,雌激素能抑制蛋白激酶A(protein kinase A,PKA)的表达和活性,PKA是Gs蛋白/腺苷酸环化酶(adenylyl cyclase,AC)/cAMP/PKA通路的第二信使,而该通路最终影响心肌的收缩功能.有初步证据表明雌激素还能抑制β1-肾上腺素受体通路下游的另一种第二信使钙调蛋白激酶Ⅱ-δc(Ca2+/calmodulin kinase Ⅱ-δc,CaMKⅡ-δc)的活性,而CaMKⅡ-δc参与PKA非依赖性的细胞凋亡.即时给予生理浓度雌激素可不通过雌激素受体而直接抑制心肌β1-肾上腺素受体并减弱Ca2+内流.此外,脑研究也显示雌激素能抑制负责调节动脉血压脑区的β广肾上腺素受体活性.因此,雌激素和β1-肾上腺素受体之间的相互作用及其信号通路十分复杂.雌激素不仅主导性别决定,在机体其它功能例如心脏保护方面也具有重要作用.     

Selective regulation of osteoblastic OPG and RANKL by dehydroepiandrosterone through activation of the estrogen receptor β-mediated MAPK signaling pathway

The aim of the work was to investigate the differential regulation by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) of the osteoblastic production via the estrogen receptor beta (ER β)-mediated signaling pathway. Having developed hMG63-ER β cells and hMG63-shER β cells, we analyzed the regulation by DHEA of human osteoblastic viability, the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and the differential expression of ER β, ER α, or p-ERK1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) in hMG63, hMG63-shER β, and hMG63-ER β cells pretreated with or without U0126, flutamide, and ICI 182780, followed by DHEA culture. When the level of ER β was high, DHEA (10 - 7 mol/l) could effectively amplify the proliferation and inhibit the etoposide-induced apoptosis of hMG63 cells (p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively), which was blocked by U0126. When the expression of ER β was silenced, DHEA could not significantly improve the viability of hMG63. In the presence of ER β, DHEA activated the pERK1/2-MAPK signaling pathway but not p38 and JNK. Besides, the regulation of p-ERK1/2 upon DHEA treatment was mainly modulated by ER β instead of androgen receptor and ER α. The secretion of OPG was declined following the silence of ER β (p<0.05). RANKL and ER α, however, were unaffected by culture with or without DHEA and U0126, regardless of the ER β level. DHEA seems to act selectively on osteoblasts via the dominant ER β receptor, which mediates amplified cell viability through the MAPK signaling pathway involving pERK1/2 and upregulates the production of OPG rather than RANKL.     

Wnt-signaling mediates the anti-adipogenic action of lysophosphatidic acid through cross talking with the Rho/Rho associated kinase (ROCK) pathway

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive phospholipid with a diverse range of biological activities including the modulation of adipogenesis. Treatment of 3T3-L1 cells and 3T3F44A cells with LPA inhibits adipogenesis and reduces expression of PPARγ through activation of RhoGTPase and its downstream Rho associated kinase (ROCK). The mechanism of suppression of PPARγ expression by Rho/ROCK is poorly understood. By treating the differentiating 3T3-L1 cells with various combinations of LPA and ROCK inhibitors, Y-27632 and fasudil, we observed that LPA treatment resulted in attenuation of adipogenesis and a significant reduction in PPARγ mRNA as early as 3?d post-induction. LPA treatment also resulted in significant but delayed upregulation of components of the canonical Wnt signaling, namely Wnt10b mRNA, β-catenin protein, and mRNA expression of β-catenin target genes, detectable at day 7, but not day 3. Treatment of the 3T3-L1 cells with ROCK inhibitors Y-27632 and fasudil revealed a tonic activation of β-catenin/target genes by ROCK. This study identified the existence of a novel cross talk between the Rho/ROCK pathway and the Wnt-signaling pathway. The LPA/Rho/ROCK pathway inhibits expression of PPARγ and adipogenesis in part through a delayed activation of the canonical Wnt-signaling pathway based on increased Wnt10b expression and β-catenin induction.     

Enhancement of insulin-like growth factor signaling in human breast cancer: estrogen regulation of insulin receptor substrate-1 expression in vitro and in vivo.

Cross-talk between insulin-like growth factor (IGF)- and estrogen receptor (ER)-signaling pathways results in synergistic growth. We show here that estrogen enhances IGF signaling by inducing expression of three key IGF-regulatory molecules, the type 1 IGF receptor (IGFR1) and its downstream signaling molecules, insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2. Estrogen induction of IGFR1 and IRS expression resulted in enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 after IGF-I stimulation, followed by enhanced mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. To examine whether these pathways were similarly activated in vivo, we examined MCF-7 cells grown as xenografts in athymic mice. IRS-1 was expressed at high levels in estrogen-dependent growth of MCF-7 xenografts, but withdrawal of estrogen, which decreased tumor growth, resulted in a dramatic decrease in IRS-1 expression. Finally, we have shown that high IRS-1 expression is an indicator of early disease recurrence in ER-positive human primary breast tumors. Taken together, these data not only reinforce the concept of cross-talk between IGF- and ER-signaling pathways, but indicate that IGF molecules may be critical regulators of estrogen-mediated growth and breast cancer pathogenesis.     

雌激素信号通路概述

过去几十年,人们一直认为雌激素信号通路是雌激素与细胞核中的雌激素受体(ER)结合,作用于雌激素受体反应元件调节基因表达,从而改变细胞功能。雌激素不但与核ER结合,也能与膜ER结合激活PI3K信号通路。G蛋白偶联受体(GPR30)也能与雌激素结合,激活PI3K信号通路。雌激素通过结合不同雌激素受体改变细胞生理功能。我们对雌激素信号通路做简要综述。     

The nodal pathway acts upstream of hedgehog signaling to specify ventral telencephalic identity

The Nodal and Hedgehog signaling pathways influence dorsoventral patterning at all axial levels of the CNS, but it remains largely unclear how these pathways interact to mediate patterning. Here we show that, in zebrafish, Nodal signaling is required for induction of the homeobox genes nk2.1a in the ventral diencephalon and nk2.1b in the ventral telencephalon. Hedgehog signaling is also required for telencephalic nk2.1b expression but may not be essential to establish diencephalic nk2.1a expression. Furthermore, Shh does not restore ventral diencephalic development in embryos lacking Nodal activity. In contrast, Shh does restore telencephalic nk2.1b expression in the absence of Nodal activity, suggesting that Hedgehog signaling acts downstream of Nodal activity to pattern the ventral telencephalon. Thus, the Nodal pathway regulates ventral forebrain patterning through both Hedgehog signaling-dependent and -independent mechanisms.     

Extra-nuclear signalling of estrogen receptor to breast cancer cytoskeletal remodelling, migration and invasion

Background

Estrogen is an established enhancer of breast cancer development, but less is known on its effect on local progression or metastasis. We studied the effect of estrogen receptor recruitment on actin cytoskeleton remodeling and breast cancer cell movement and invasion. Moreover, we characterized the signaling steps through which these actions are enacted.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In estrogen receptor (ER) positive T47-D breast cancer cells ER activation with 17β-estradiol induces rapid and dynamic actin cytoskeleton remodeling with the formation of specialized cell membrane structures like ruffles and pseudopodia. These effects depend on the rapid recruitment of the actin-binding protein moesin. Moesin activation by estradiol depends on the interaction of ERα with the G protein Gα₁₃, which results in the recruitment of the small GTPase RhoA and in the subsequent activation of its downstream effector Rho-associated kinase-2 (ROCK-2). ROCK-2 is responsible for moesin phosphorylation. The Gα₁₃/RhoA/ROCK/moesin cascade is necessary for the cytoskeletal remodeling and for the enhancement of breast cancer cell horizontal migration and invasion of three-dimensional matrices induced by estrogen. In addition, human samples of normal breast tissue, fibroadenomas and invasive ductal carcinomas show that the expression of wild-type moesin as well as of its active form is deranged in cancers, with increased protein amounts and a loss of association with the cell membrane.

Conclusions/Significance

These results provide an original mechanism through which estrogen can facilitate breast cancer local and distant progression, identifying the extra-nuclear Gα₁₃/RhoA/ROCK/moesin signaling cascade as a target of ERα in breast cancer cells. This information helps to understand the effects of estrogen on breast cancer metastasis and may provide new targets for therapeutic interventions.     

Mys Protein Regulates Protein Kinase A Activity by Interacting with Regulatory Type I�� Subunit during Vertebrate Development

During embryonic development, protein kinase A (PKA) plays a key role in cell fate specification by antagonizing the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway. However, the mechanism by which PKA activity is regulated remains unknown. Here we show that the Misty somites (Mys) protein regulates the level of PKA activity during embryonic development in zebrafish. We isolate PKA regulatory type Iα subunit (Prkar1a) as a protein interacting with Mys by pulldown assay in HEK293 cells followed by mass spectrometry analysis. We show an interaction between endogenous Mys and Prkar1a in the zebrafish embryo. Mys binds to Prkar1a in its C terminus region, termed PRB domain, and activates PKA in vitro. Conversely, knockdown of Mys in zebrafish embryos results in reduction in PKA activity. We also show that knockdown of Mys induces ectopic activation of Hh target genes in the eyes, neural tube, and somites downstream of Smoothened, a protein essential for transduction of Hh signaling activity. The altered patterning of gene expression is rescued by activation of PKA. Together, our results reveal a molecular mechanism of regulation of PKA activity that is dependent on a protein-protein interaction and demonstrate that PKA activity regulated by Mys is indispensable for negative regulation of the Hh signaling pathway in Hh-responsive cells.