A high accumulation of minerals in human internal jugular vein

To elucidate age-related changes of mineral contents in human veins, the relative contents (RCs) of elements in the human internal jugular veins, superior and inferior venae cavae, and femoral veins from 27 subjects ranging from 40 to 98 yr old were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. The average RCs of calcium in the 27 specimens were the highest in the internal jugular vein, followed in descending order by the superior vena cava, femoral vein, and inferior vena cava. The RCs of calcium and phosphorus in the internal jugular veins started to increase after the age of 50 yr, became the highest in subjects in their 60s and thereafter decreased gradually. It is noted that such accumulations of minerals, similar to the internal jugular vein, were also found in the veins, such as the superior and inferior venae cavae, and femoral vein. Accumulation of minerals in the veins is different from that of arteries, which increase progressively by aging, but do not decrease.     

A possible balance of phosphorus accumulations among bone, cartilage, artery, and vein in single human individuals

To elucidate relationships between the decrease of mineral contents in human bones and the accumulation of minerals in the other human tissues, the contents of phosphorus in human bones, arteries, veins, and cartilages in 27 subjects (17 men and 10 women) were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. These were resected from subjects who died in the age range 40–98 yr. Calcanei were chosen for analysis of mineral contents in contrast to arteries such as the femoral, popliteal, and common carotid arteries, veins such as superior and inferior venae cavae, internal jugular, and femoral veins, and pubic symphyses. It was found that the content of phosphorus in calcanei was in agreement with that in both the pubic symphysis and the arteries such as femoral, popliteal, and common carotid arteries, but it was not in agreement with that in the veins such as superior and inferior venae cavae, internal jugular, and femoral veins. This suggests that phosphorus released from bones is accompanied by accumulations of phosphorus in the artery and cartilage.     

Correlations of calcium accumulations in arteries, veins, cartilages, ligaments, and bones in single humans

To show the relationships of calcium accumulation in the thoracic aorta to the other tissues, calcium contents were determined with a microwave-induced plasma-atomic emission spectrometer on arteries, veins, cartilages, ligaments, and bones. These tissues were resected from 18 individuals, consisting of 11 men and 7 women who died in the age range 59–91 yr. As thoracic and abdominal aortas are routinely used for radiographic examination of arterial calcification, they appear to be standard tissues of the calcium accumulation. The calcium accumulations were determined in the femoral artery, the superior and inferior venae cavae, the internal jugular vein, cartilages of the articular disk of the temporomandibular joint and the intervertebral disk, both the ligaments of the anterior cruciate ligament and the ligamentum capitis femoris, and the calcaneus, in contrast with the thoracic aorta. As calcium increased in the thoracic aorta, it increased in the femoral artery, the articular disk of the temporomandibular joint, the intervertebral disk, both ligaments of the anterior cruciate ligament, and the ligamentum capitis femoris, but it did not increase in veins, such as the superior and inferior venae cavae and the internal jugular vein. In contrast, it decreased in the calcaneus.     

A possible balance of magnesium accumulations among bone, cartilage, artery, and vein in single human individuals

It is known that a large quantity of magnesium contains bones, and the magnesium contents in spongy bones decrease gradually with advancing age. To elucidate the relationships between a decrease of mineral contents in human bones and an accumulation of minerals in the other human tissues, the content of magnesium was analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry among human bones, arteries, veins, and cartilages in 27 subjects (17 men and 10 women). These were resected from the subjects who died in the age range 40–98 yr. Calcanei were chosen for analysis of magnesium contents in contrast with femoral, popliteal, and common carotid arteries, internal jugular and femoral veins, superior and inferior venae cavae, and pubic symphyses. The magnesium contents in the calcanei decreased gradually with aging, whereas they increased progressively in the arteries, veins, and pubic symphyses with aging. It was found that as the magnesium contents decreased in the calcanei, they increased in the arteries, such as the femoral, popliteal, and common carotid arteries, whereas they decreased inversely in the veins, such as the internal jugular and femoral veins and superior and inferior venae cavae. Furthermore, as the magnesium contents decreased in the calcanei, they hardly changed in the pubic symphyses. These suggest that magnesium released from bones is accompanied by accumulation of magnesium in the arteries.     

Development of nerves plexuses in the pelvis of the prenatal rabbit

By means of neurohistological and histochemical methods using serial sections of the embryos at the age of 12-30 days of development, the premediatory and beginning of the mediatory stages in development of cholinergic and adrenergic neural plexuses have been studied in rabbit small pelvis. Appearance of catecholamine-containing cells at early mediatory stages and a gradual development and complication of the cholinergic and adrenergic neural plexuses structure are demonstrated. By birth in the rabbit small pelvis area, some elements of cholinergic and adrenergic structures begin to form.     

Morphological changes in the spinal cord, its meninges and epidural structures in experimental disorders of blood flow in the venae cavae

The experiment has been carried out on 72 dogs. The dynamics of morphofunctional changes in the spinal cord, its meninges and in the epidural structures have been investigated when the epidural veins of the spinal canal are involved into the collateral blood stream after ligation of the anterior or posterior venae cavae. During the first 24 h after disturbance of the blood stream in the venae cavae, there appears venous stasis in the vessels of the epidural structures, of the spinal cord and its meninges, in neurons and glial elements hypoxia and acidosis appear. However, in connection with reconstruction of the collateralies, compensating the disturbed blood stream, by the end of the first week the phenomena of the venous stasis disappear. As the result of further reconstruction of the collateral bed, the epidural veins of the spinal canal become the main (short) bypass. During 3-5 months after occlusion of the venae cavae not only the ventral epidural veins of the spinal canal are gradually dilating, but the veins of the roots and meninges of the spinal cord, as well. The spinal cord edema develops, its volume increases by 10-18%, neural cells undergo severe morphological changes up to their death. The phenomena of a chronic venous congestion increase in their severity during 3 years, after that compensatory and restorative changes begin prevailing.     

Temporary Dietary Iron Restriction Affects the Process of Thrombus Resolution in a Rat Model of Deep Vein Thrombosis

BackgroundDeep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a major cause of pulmonary thromboembolism and sudden death. Thus, it is important to consider the pathophysiology of DVT. Recently, iron has been reported to be associated with thrombotic diseases. Hence, in this study, we investigate the effects of dietary iron restriction on the process of thrombus resolution in a rat model of DVT.MethodsWe induced DVT in 8-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats by performing ligations of their inferior venae cavae. The rats were then given either a normal diet (DVT group) or an iron-restricted diet (DVT+IR group). Thrombosed inferior venae cavae were harvested at 5 days after ligation.ResultsThe iron-restricted diet reduced venous thrombus size compared to the normal diet. Intrathrombotic collagen content was diminished in the DVT+IR group compared to the DVT group. In addition, intrathrombotic gene expression and the activity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 were increased in the DVT+IR group compared to the DVT group. Furthermore, the DVT+IR group had greater intrathrombotic neovascularization as well as higher gene expression levels of urokinase-type plasminogen activator and tissue-type plasminogen activator than the DVT group. The iron-restricted diet decreased intrathrombotic superoxide production compared to the normal diet.ConclusionsThese results suggest that dietary iron restriction affects the process of thrombus resolution in DVT.     

Presence of atrial natriuretic polypeptide in the pulmonary vein and vena cava

Striated muscle cells and storage granules observed in the atria were found in main branches of the pulmonary veins and superior and inferior venae cavae of the rat, pig, and ox. The presence of atrial natriuretic polypeptide (ANP) in these veins was examined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a radioimmunoassay for ANP. The veins contained 0.6 to 8.0 ng ANP/mg wet tissue with the major molecular form being gamma-ANP. ANP was detected in the peripheral lung tissue in a small quantity, but was not detected in the pulmonary artery. The identification of gamma-ANP and storage granules stained with an anti-ANP antiserum in the pulmonary vein and vena cava suggest that the veins may participate in regulating volume status, blood pressure, and cardiovascular homeostasis through the release of ANP.     

Distribution of atrial natriuretic polypeptide (ANP)-containing cells in the rat heart and pulmonary vein Immunohistochemical study and radioimmunoassay

Summary The distribution of atrial natriuretic polypeptide (ANP) was immunohistochemically surveyed in the rat heart and lung using an antiserum raised against -human ANP. The ANP-immunoreactive cells were seen to be distributed in the atrial walls and proximal portions of the pulmonary vein and venae cavae, but were absent from the aorta, pulmonary arteries, trachea, bronchus, and alveolar cells. The immunoreactive cells were present in a narrow region just beneath the endothelium of the pulmonary vein and vena cavae, and, ultrastructurally and immunocytochemically, were seen to be striated muscle cells with ANP-containing specific granules similar to those seen in atrial cardiocytes. A radioimmunoassay for ANP revealed a content of 604±51 pg/mg wet weight in the pulmonary vein, and 3343±1620 pg/mg wet weight in the venae cavae. In addition to the atrial wall, the proximal portion of both the pulmonary vein and venae cavae are suggested to be constituents of an ANP-producing organ.     

Effect of acute lymphatic obstruction on fluid accumulation in the chest in dogs.

The effect of acute obstruction to lymphatic drainage on fluid accumulation in the lungs, pleura, and pericardium was assessed in the intact dog. Catheters were positioned in the venae cavase, right atrium (RA), left atrium (LA), age on fluid accumulation in the lungs, pleura, and pericardium was assessed in the intact dog. Catheters were positioned in the venae cavae, right atrium (RA), left atrium (LA), and aorta (Ao) of nine anesthetized, spontaneouly breathing dogs, and hydrostic and colloid osmotic pressures were continuously monitored. Lymphatic obstruction was achieved by raising systemic venous pressure to either 10 mmHg or 25 mmHg by a combination of fluid infusion and inflation of balloon catheters in the venae cavae for 2 h. The same constant net intravascular filtration pressure was maintained in both groups by appropriate use of saline or colloid-containing fluids. Pleural and pericardial fluids were measured postmortem and lung water content was determined by weighing before and after drying. Failure to detect greater fluid accumulation at the higher obstructing pressure (25 mmHg) than at the lower obstructing pressure (10 mmHg) suggests that over the range of obstructing pressures used there is no acute change in the magnitude of lymphatic drainage in the chest.     

The sinoatrial ring bundle: a cardiac neural communication system?

The sinoatrial ring bundle (SARB), was originally described as a "whitish bundle of tissue which describes an almost complete loop around the two venae cavae and the coronary sinus" in the adult rabbit heart (Paes de Carvalho et al., 1959). The histologically and electrophysiologically differentiated structure, derived from the embryonic venous valves, was suitably placed for rapid conduction from sinoatrial (SA) to atrioventricular (AV) node, but no evidence was found for this role. Today, the function of the SARB remains obscure. Cholinesterase/silver staining reveals the neural pattern associated with the SARB and suggests a function. Throughout its extent, the SARB contains a bundle of parallel muscle fibers and accompanying long nerves. The nerves distribute to structures at either side of the loop: superolaterally to pectinate muscle and inferomedially to the region of the AV node. Along the curve of the right SARB, the nerves contribute to a dense neural plexus with nerves coiled around muscle. The plexus communicates with the nearby SA node and with the ganglia inferior to the node near the inferior vena cava. The morphological pattern of neural elements is suitably organized to suggest tension monitoring and internodal, neural communication.     

Adrenergic and cholinergic innervation of the prostate in laboratory animals

The prostate innervation has been studied in 50 white rats, 12 rabbits, 12 guinea pigs, 6 cats and 6 dogs. Together with the impregnation techniques, Karnovsky-Roots method has been applied, for revealing cholinergic components, and the incubation method in 2% solution of glyoxylic acid, for revealing adrenergic nervous structures. Density of adrenergic and cholinergic nervous plexuses has been estimated by means of the planimetric point method. The prostate of the laboratory animals possesses well manifested adrenergic and cholinergic nervous plexuses. The organ's alveolus and ducts are covered with adrenergic and cholinergic fibers, however, the relative density of the cholinergic plexuses is less than that of the adrenergic ones. The guinea pig prostate is the most richly supplied with the adrenergic nervous plexuses, and the rabbit prostate--with the cholinergic nervous plexuses.     

A comparative characteristic of effector innervation of cerebral arteries in mammals and humans.

The neural fibres of cerebral arteries in humans, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, swine, cows and horses have been studied using the methods of Flack-Hillarp and Koelle. The large arteries of the carotid and vertebral systems bear dense cholinergic and adrenergic plexuses formed by transversal and longitudial neural fibres, which are located in the superficial and deep adventitial layers. The highest density of cholinergic and adrenergic fibres was observed on the arteries of humans and large mammals. Depending on the density of cholinergic and adrenergic fibres in the said arteries, the animals may be listed in the following order: rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, swine, cows and horses. Basic differences in the structure of neural plexuses of humans and animals were not observed.     

Neural connections of the heart and superior vena cava in the rabbit and man

Innervational connections of the heart and the superior vena cava wall have been studied in the rabbit and the man. Besides, series of their embryos, impregnated with silver salts after Cajal-Favorsky have been investigated. Methods of Bielschowsky-Gros, Gomori and Karnovsky-Roots have also been applied. Adrenergic nervous elements have been revealed by means of incubation the slices in 2% solution of glyoxylic acid. Abundant cholinergic and adrenergic nervous plexuses are revealed on the wall of the superior vena cava, they are tightly connected with corresponding plexuses of the heart. Developmental of these nervous connections is followed, when embryogenesis of the cardiac nervous plexuses and large major vessels is studied in serial sections of embryos and fetuses of the rabbit and the man.     

Bmx Tyrosine Kinase Has a Redundant Function Downstream of Angiopoietin and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptors in Arterial Endothelium

The Bmx gene, a member of the Tec tyrosine kinase gene family, is known to be expressed in subsets of hematopoietic and endothelial cells. In this study, mice were generated in which the first coding exon of the Bmx gene was replaced with the lacZ reporter gene by a knock-in strategy. The homozygous mice lacking Bmx activity were fertile and had a normal life span without an obvious phenotype. Staining of their tissues using beta-galactosidase substrate to assess the sites of Bmx expression revealed strong signals in the endothelial cells of large arteries and in the endocardium starting between days 10.5 and 12.5 of embryogenesis and continuing in adult mice, while the venular endothelium showed a weak signal only in the superior and inferior venae cavae. Of the five known endothelial receptor tyrosine kinases tested, activated Tie-2 induced tyrosyl phosphorylation of the Bmx protein and both Tie-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR-1) stimulated Bmx tyrosine kinase activity. Thus, the Bmx tyrosine kinase has a redundant role in arterial endothelial signal transduction downstream of the Tie-2 and VEGFR-1 growth factor receptors.     

Parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic synapses in ureterovesical autonomic pathways

Summary Histochemical techniques for acetylcholinesterase and catecholamine show that ureterovesical ganglia of both cat and dog contain dense intraganglionic cholinergic and adrenergic plexuses. Ramifications of both plexuses surround most cholinergic and adrenergic ganglion cell bodies as pericellular synaptic plexuses. Similar pericellular plexuses exist around extraganglionic cholinergic and adrenergic ganglion cells. Both adrenergic and cholinergic synaptic fibers persist in denervated pregnaglionic nerve-free specimens, indicating that cholinergic synaptic fibers are postganglionic parasympathetic in nature. The presence of adrenergic (postganglionic sympathetic) and postganglionic parasympathetic synapses around cell bodies in ureterovesical ganglia provides a morphologic basis for the sympathoinhibitory and muscarinic parasympatho-excitatory phenomena described in these ganglia.     

Fluorescence histochemical study on regional differences in the sympathetic nerve supply of the choroid plexus from various laboratory animals

Summary The adrenergic nerve supply of the choroid plexus in all four ventricles was studied by the Falck-Hillarp histofluorescence technique in nine different species, and the noradrenaline concentration in whole plexus tissue was determined by a radioenzymatic method. The nerve density was usually in the order: third > lateral > fourth ventricular plexuses. Plexuses of the pig and cat possessed the largest number of nerves; the innervation was intermediary in the baboon, guinea-pig, rat, rabbit and hamster, whereas only few fluorescent nerves were found in the cow and mouse plexuses. Sympathetic denervation showed an ipsilateral supply from the superior cervical ganglia to the lateral plexuses and a mixed contribution to the midline plexuses. The total noradrenaline concentration varied between 0.10 and 0.73 ng per mg protein.     

Intravascular pressure profiles in elephant seals: hypotheses on the caval sphincter, extradural vein and venous return to the heart

In order to evaluate hemodynamics in the complex vascular system of phocid seals, intravascular pressure profiles were measured during periods of rest-associated apnea in young elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris). There were no significant differences between apneic and eupneic mean arterial pressures. During apnea, venous pressure profiles (pulmonary artery, thoracic portion of the vena cava (thoracic vena cava), extradural vein, and hepatic sinus) demonstrated only minor, transient fluctuations. During eupnea, all venous pressure profiles were dominated by respiratory fluctuations. During inspiration, pressures in the thoracic vena cava and extradural vein decreased -9 to -21 mm Hg, and -9 to -17 mm Hg, respectively. In contrast, hepatic sinus pressure increased 2-6 mm Hg during inspiration. Nearly constant hepatic sinus and intrathoracic vascular pressure profiles during the breath-hold period are consistent with incomplete constriction of the caval sphincter during these rest-associated apneas. During eupnea, negative inspiratory intravascular pressures in the chest ("the respiratory pump") should augment venous return via both the venae cavae and the extradural vein. It is hypothesized that, in addition to the venae cavae, the prominent para-caval venous system of phocid seals (i.e., the extradural vein) is necessary to allow adequate venous return for maintenance of high cardiac outputs and blood pressure during eupnea.     

The origin and distribution of adrenergic nerve fibres in the guinea-pig colon

Summary A detailed study of the origin and distribution of sympathetic fibres in the distal colon of the guinea-pig has been made using the fluorescent histochemical method for localizing catecholamines. The extrinsic adrenergic fibres of the colonie sympathetic nerves follow the inferior mesenteric artery and its branches to the colon. Some of the extrinsic adrenergic fibres are associated with the parasympathetic fibres of the pelvic nerves near the colon. Complete adrenergic denervation follows the removal of the inferior mesenteric ganglion or the destruction of the nerves running with the inferior mesenteric artery.No fluorescent fibres, other than those associated with blood vessels, were observed in air-dried stretch preparations of the isolated longitudinal muscle. However, a substantial number of varicose, terminal fibres, not associated with blood vessels, were observed in the circular muscle. Some varicose fibres, apart from those associated with ganglion cells, were observed in the myenteric plexus. These fibres were seen in the bundles of nerves running between the nodes of the plexus and also as single fibres which branched from the plexus to end in areas free of ganglion cells.Three plexuses of adrenergic nerve fibres have been distinguished in the submucosa: a dense plexus of terminal fibres innervating both the veins and arteries; a plexus consisting of innervated nodes of ganglion cells, connected by bundles of fluorescent and non-fluorescent nerves; and a plexus of varicose and non-varicose fibres, which is not associated with ganglion cells. Some groups of ganglion cells in the submucosa were without adrenergic innervation.A plexus of varicose fibres forms a meshwork in the lamina propria of the mucosa. The muscularis mucosae is sparsely innervated. Most of the blood vessels in the mucosa are not associated with adrenergic fibres.     

The cardiac innervation of Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck) (Mollusca: Cephalopoda)

The innervation to the cardiac organs and vessels of the octopods Eledone cirrhosa, E. moschata and Octopus vulgaris is described from vitally stained fresh material and wax-embedded sections. This innervation arises from the paired visceral nerves and includes two main peripheral ganglia (fusiform and cardiac) on each side. Several new details of the innervation are reported. Nerves supplying the lateral venae cavae arise from the ventricular nerves at the level of the ventricle. Nerve fibres run to the efferent branchial vessels from the cardiac ganglia. A small ganglion, lying on the auriculo-ventricular nerve, is described for some specimens of both species of Eledone, and is named the auricular ganglion. Commissural strands linking the right and left ventricular nerves of either side are found in Eledone, comparable to those previously described from Octopus. The detailed branching pattern of the innervation shows considerable individual variation and consistent interspecific differences. In E. cirrhosa the fine fibres innervating the inner and outer muscle layers of the auricle show distinct differences in their configuration. Innervation at the surface of the ventricular lumen and around the coronary arterial vessels shows evidence of specialization. The muscle of the branchial heart, particularly the valve leaflets at the junction of the heart and the lateral vena cava, is abundantly innervated. The observations are discussed in relation to other cephalopods and to their probable physiological significance. It is suggested that they provide evidence for a greater degree of neural influence in the control of the cardiac organs than is usually supposed and that they support the idea that the lateral venae cavae have a significant role in the generation of circulatory pressures.