How to regulate a gene: to repress or to activate?

Gene-expression responses to an input can depend on growth conditions; in this issue, Sasson et al. (2012) show that this dependence is lower when the input results in a high degree of promoter occupancy.     

Senescence: a telomeric limit to immortality or a cellular response to physiologic stresses?

Cells entering a state of senescence undergo a irreversible cell cycle arrest, associated by a set of functional and morphological changes. Senescence occurs following telomeres shortening (replicative senescence) or exposure to other acute or chronic physiologic stress signals (a phenomenon termed stasis: stress or aberrant signaling-induced senescence). In this review, I discuss the pathways of cellular senescence, the mechanisms involved and the role that these pathways have in regulating the initiation and progression of cancer. Telomere-initiated senescence or loss of telomere function trigger focal recruitement of protein sensors of the DNA double-strand breaks leading to the activation of the DNA damage checkpoint responses and the tumour suppressor gene product, p53, which in turn induces the cell-cycle inhibitor, p21(WAF1). Loss of p53 and pRb function allows continued cell division despite increasing telomere dysfunction and eventually entry into telomere crisis. Immortalisation is an essential prerequisite for the formation of a tumour cell. Therefore, a developing tumour cell must circumvent at least two proliferative barriers--cellular senescence and crisis--to achieve neoplastic transformation. These barriers are regulated by telomere shortening and by the p16(INK4a)/Rb and p53 tumour suppressor pathways. Elucidation of the genes and emerging knowledge about the regulatory mechanisms that lead to senescence and determine the pattern of gene expression in senescent cells may lead to more effective treatments for cancer.     

Intra-Golgi transport: a way to a new paradigm?

The morpho-functional principles of intra-Golgi transport are, surprisingly, still not clear, which is in marked contrast to our advanced knowledge of the underlying molecular machineries. Recently, the conceptual and technological hindrances that had delayed progress in this area have been disappearing, and a cluster of powerful morphological techniques has been revealing new glimpses of the organization of traffic in intact cells. Here, we discuss the new concepts around the present models of intra-Golgi transport.     

Root gravitropism: a complex response to a simple stimulus?

Roots avoid depleting their immediate environment of essential nutrients by continuous growth. Root growth is directed by environmental cues, including gravity. Gravity sensing occurs mainly in the columella cells of the root cap. Upon reorientation within the gravity field, the root-cap amyloplasts sediment, generating a physiological signal that promotes the development of a curvature at the root elongation zones. Recent molecular genetic studies in Arabidopsis have allowed the identification of genes that play important roles in root gravitropism. Among them, the ARG1 gene encodes a DnaJ-like protein involved in gravity signal transduction, whereas the AUX1 and AGR1 genes encode proteins involved in polar auxin transport. These studies have important implications for understanding the intra- and inter-cellular signaling processes that underlie root gravitropism.     

Ecology – a science put to use

There is no lack of pretext for reviewing historically how ecologists have striven to gain the respect of scholars in their own and other fields, and to demonstrate the wider public-utility of their science. If self-serving, in terms of securing the scope and resources required to advance their studies in ecology, such activities have also been encouraged, and indeed commissioned, in the belief that a greater awareness and understanding of the natural world is essential for human wellbeing. Illustrative material is drawn from the British experience.     

The BOS™ as a species-specific method to deliver baits to wild boar in a Mediterranean area

The impact of wild boar Sus scrofa and feral pigs on ecosystems and human activities is of interest worldwide. Bait-delivered pharmaceuticals such as contraceptives or disease vaccines are increasingly advocated to assist the management of such impacts. We evaluated the Boar-Operated-System (BOS?) to deliver baits to wild boar in a Mediterranean area with a large community of potential nontarget species. In a pre-trial phase (BOS? open), both wild boar and 12 nontarget species (wildlife and livestock) visited the BOS? and eight species consumed the baits. In the trial phase, when the BOS? were closed, only wild boar consumed baits. From pre-trial to trial, the rate of visits by nontarget species to the BOS? decreased significantly, but that of wild boar did not change. We observed that crested porcupines Hystrix cristata prevented the wild boar from using BOS?. We confirmed the effectiveness of BOS? to deliver baits selectively to wild boar in a Mediterranean area.     

How to kill a mocking bug?

All metazoans have evolved means to protect themselves from threats present in the environment: injuries, viruses, fungi, bacteria and other parasites. Insect protection includes innate physical barriers and both cellular and humoral responses. The insect innate immune response, best characterized in Drosophila melanogaster, is a rapid broad response, triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) recognition, which produces a limited range of effectors that does not alter upon continued pathogen exposure and lacks immunological memory. The Drosophila response, particularly its humoral response, has been investigated by both low and high-throughput methods. Three signalling pathways conserved between insects and mammals have been implicated in this response: Toll (equivalent to mammalian TLR), Imd (equivalent to TNFalpha) and Hop (equivalent to JAK/STAT). This review provides an entry point to the insect immune system literature outlining the main themes in D. melanogaster bacterial pathogen detection and humoral and cellular immune responses. The Drosophila immune response is compared with other insects and the mammalian immune system.     

Switching TGFβ from a tumor suppressor to a tumor promoter

TGFβ acts as a potent tumor suppressor and tumor promoter in a context dependent manner. Tumor suppressive functions include inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis and regulation of autophagy. As tumors develop they switch their response to TGFβ and utilise this factor as a potent promoter of cell motility, invasion, metastasis and tumor stem cell maintenance. These multifactorial tumor influencing actions of TGFβ involve regulation of an increasing number of signal transduction pathways employing a diverse range of signaling molecules. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of how tumor cells respond to TGFβ and switch their response to this cytokine during disease progression is vital for both the development and the informed use of potentially powerful TGFβ targeted therapeutics.     

Stasipatric speciation: resurrecting a system to bury a hypothesis?

The process of speciation remains a fundamental topic in evolutionary biology. Numerous models of speciation have been proposed and they are as diverse and colourful as the scientists who conceived them ( Coyne & Orr 2004 ). One of the more controversial theories has been the ‘stasipatric speciation’ model, proposed by the pioneering and influential cytogeneticist Michael White and his co‐workers ( White 1968 ; White et al. 1967 ). This is one of a number of speciation models whereby chromosomal rearrangements drive the speciation process. The inspiration for the theory of stasipatric speciation came from White’s karyotypic analyses of a group of Australian grasshoppers of the genus Vandiemenella ( White et al. 1967 ) ( Fig. 1 ). It has been exactly three decades since the last scientific publication on this group of grasshoppers, over which time the molecular revolution dramatically altered the landscape of evolutionary genetics. Kawakami and colleagues have successfully resurrected the Vandiemenella system ( Kawakami et al. 2009a, 2007 ) and in this issue they have applied modern molecular‐based techniques to reassess the validity of the stasipatric speciation model for this historically important group ( Kawakami et al. 2009b ).

Figure 1 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint The grasshopper (Vandiemenella viatica) that inspired Michael White to develop the stasipatric speciation model (photograph by Remko Leijs).     

Horizontal transmission of a parasitic nematode from a non-native to a native woodwasp?

In eastern North America, the exotic invasive woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, attacks pines (Pinus spp.) and often shares larval habitat with the native woodwasp, Sirex nigricornis. The parasitic nematode, Deladenus siricidicola, has been used widely in the southern hemisphere as a biological control agent because it sterilizes female S. noctilio. This nematode was introduced accidentally to North America along with S. noctilio. Historical reports indicate nematode-woodwasp fidelity: the parasitic nematode, D. siricidicola, exclusively infects S. noctilio, and the native nematode, Deladenus proximus, exclusively infects S. nigricornis. From two sites in southern Ontario, separated by 225 km, we collected woodwasps from three Pinus sylvestris, and identified the nematode species present in the abdomens of infected wasps. Both wasp species co-occurred in all three trees. D. siricidicola was present in the haemocoel, but not inside the eggs, of infected S. noctilio and S. nigricornis. This evidence suggests horizontal transmission of D. siricidicola likely occurred from S. noctilio to S. nigricornis.     

Mycobacterial disease—a challenge to biotechnology

Summary The two principal mycobacterial diseases — tuberculosis and leprosy — remain major causes of human suffering in many parts of the world. The struggle against these diseases has been hampered by the inadequacy of methods for their diagnosis, prevention and therapy. Improvements in diagnostic methods, especially for tuberculosis, are required as existing bacteriological techniques are time consuming and insensitive, but immunological tests suffer from a lack of specificity and a failure to distinguish active disease from past sensitization. Tests are required that will either detect the presence of mycobacterial antigens or the occurrence of immune reactions specific to active infection. Prophylaxis by BCG vaccine is never complete and in some regions appears virtually ineffective. In order to determine the reason for this variation, to produce better vaccines, and to use BCG more effectively, a deeper understanding of the immune reactions in mycobacterial disease is required. In particular, the bacterial determinants of virulence and protection and the mode of action of BCG require detailed study. The therapy of tuberculosis and, to a lesser extent, leprosy has undergone an extensive transformation since the introduction of rifampicin. Nevertheless the cost of modern short course regimens for tuberculosis limit their application. Even shorter regimens, made possible by more potent bactericidal drugs or by agents that stimulate the host's defences are thus required. Recent advances in biotechnology could therefore lead to significant advances in the control of these diseases but only if they are integrated into local, self-reliant public health initiatives.

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Enfermedades producidas por microbacterias. Un desafío a la biotecnologia

Resumen La dos principales enfermedades producidas por micobacterias — tuberculosis y lepra —persisten como las causas más importantes del sufrimiento humano en muchas partes del mundo. La lucha contra estas enfermedades se ha visto dificultada por lo inadecuado de los métodos para su diagnosis, prevención y terapia. Es necesaria una mejora de los métodos de diagnosis, especialmente en el caso de la tuberculosis, ya que las técnicas bacteriológicas existentes son poco sensibles y consumen mucho tiempo y los tests inmunológicos son inespecíficos y no permiten distinguir entre la enfermedad activa y la sensibilidad adquirida. Se necesitan tests capaces de detectar la presencia de antígenos microbacterianos o la existencia de reacciones de inmunización específicas de la infección activa. La profilaxis con la vacuna BCG no es nunca completa y en algunas regiones es virtualmente enefectiva. Con objeto de determinar las razones de esta variación, de producir mejores vacunas y de usar la BCG de forma más eficiente, se necesita entender con más profundidad las reacciones de inmunización en las enfermedades por micobacterias. En particular los determinantes bacterianos de la virulencia y de la protección y la forma de actuar de la BCG precisan de un estudio detallado. La terapia de la tuberculosis y en menor grado la de la lepra, han sufrido una extensa transformación desde la introducción de la rifampicina. Sin embargo, el costo de los modernos tratamientos a corto plazo de la tuberculosis limítan su aplicación. Se requieren tratamientos aún más cortos basados en el desarrollo de drogas bactericidas más potentes o de agentes que estimulen las defensas del enfermo. Los recientes avances en biotecnología podrían por tanto conducir a avances importantes en el control de estas enfermedades pero solamente si se integran en iniciativas médicas públicas consistentes.

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Les maladies à mycobactéries — Un enjeu pour les biotechnologies

Résumé Les deux principales maladies à mycobactéries — la tuberculose et la lèpre — sont toujours des causes majeures de souffrance humaine dans de nombreuses parties du monde. La lutte contre ces maladies est entravée par l'inadéquation des méthodes diagnostiques, préventives et thérapeutiques. Spéciallement en ce qui concerne la tuberculose, l'amélioration des moyens de diagnostic est rendue nécessaire par le fait que les techniques bactériologiques existantes sont longues et peu sensibles, et que les tests immunologiques, n'étant pas spécifiques, ne permettent pas de distinguer entre une maladie en évolution et une sensibilisation ancienne. On a besoin de tests permettant de déceler soit la présence d'antigènes mycobactériens, soit l'apparition de réactions immunitaires spécifiques au cours d'une infection évolutive. La prophylaxie par le BCG n'est jamais complète et parait être pratiquement inefficace dans certaines régions. Pour expliquer cette variation géographique, produire de meilleurs vaccins, et utiliser le BCG efficacement, il convient de mieux connaître les réactions immunitaires au cours des maladies à mycobactéries. En particulier, les déterminants bactériens de la virulence et de la protection, ainsi que le mode d'action du BCG sont à approfondir. La rifampicine a considérablement transformé la thérapeutique de la tuberculose et, à un moindre degré, de la lèpre. Néanmoins, le coût des nouveaux traitements intensifs de la tuberculose limite leur application. Il est nécessaire que des médicaments bactéricides plus puissants ou des agents stimulant les défenses de l'hôte puissent raccourcir encore davantage la durée des traitements. Le progrès biotechnologique peut donc améliorer de façon significative le contrôle des maladies considérées, à la seule condition que ce but soit volontairement intégré dans les initiatives locales en matière de santé publique.

     

Glucose—a sweet way to die

TRAIL, a putative anticancer cytokine, induces extrinsic cell death by activating the caspase cascade directly (Type I cells) via the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) or indirectly (Type II cells) by caspase-8 cleavage of Bid and activation of the mitochondrial cell death pathway. Cancer cells are characterized by their dependence on aerobic glycolysis, which, although inefficient in terms of ATP production, facilitates tumor metabolism. Our studies show that TRAIL-induced cell death is significantly affected by the metabolic status of the cell. Inhibiting glycolysis with 2-deoxyglucose potentiates TRAIL-induced cell death, whereas glucose deprivation can paradoxically inhibit apoptosis. These conflicting responses to glycolysis inhibition are modulated by the balance between the Akt and AMPK pathways and their subsequent downstream regulation of mTORC1. This results in marked changes in protein translation, in which the equilibrium between anti- and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member proteins is decided by their individual degradation rates. This regulates the mitochondrial cell death pathway and alters its sensitivity not only to TRAIL, but to ABT-737, a Bcl-2 inhibitor. Taken together, our studies show that the sensitivity of cancer cells to apoptosis can be modulated by targeting their unique metabolism in order to enhance sensitivity to apoptotic agents.