自噬在阿尔茨海默病中的作用及其机制

自噬途径是细胞长寿命蛋白和功能障碍细胞器的主要降解途径。自噬功能障碍与多种异常折叠蛋白积聚导致的神经变性疾病有关。在阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)发生发展中,β淀粉样蛋白的水平、神经元的存活与凋亡及行为记忆功能的恢复等与自噬密切相关。明确自噬在AD发病不同阶段的确切作用可能有助于发现更为有效的治疗靶点。     

朊病毒病相关细胞凋亡

朊病毒病是一组蛋白质折叠异常的蛋白质构象病,由正常朊蛋白PrP^C转化为具蛋白酶抗性的异常朊蛋白PrP^Sc并在中枢神经系统聚集引起.其主要的病理变化为神经元的丢失,脑组织的海绵样变及神经胶质细胞增生.目前认为其神经元丢失的主要原因为凋亡及自噬等,而神经元的凋亡涉及多种因素及途径,机制较为复杂.对神经元凋亡的研究将有助于揭示朊病毒病的发病机制.     

一种快速检测CLN6模型小鼠基因型的方法——高分辨率熔解曲线分析法

目的建立利用高分辨率熔解曲线（HRM）分析快速鉴定CLN6（神经元蜡样脂褐质沉积症,ceroid—lipofuscinosis,neurona16）小鼠（c2硒基因移码突变）基因型的方法。方法根据NCBI公布的小鼠cln6序列（NC00075）设计HRM引物和测序引物,然后采用HRM技术获得高分辨熔解曲线鉴定实验小鼠基因型,同时通过直接测序法进行验证,评价其灵敏性和准确性。结果181只实验小鼠经HRM检测,共有野生型11只、Cln6基因突变杂合子73只和纯合子97只,HRM结果和直接测序结果完全一致,准确性为100％。结论HRM方法检测DNA微小突变时具有操作简便、快速、灵敏,单管避免污染以及准确度高等优点,值得推广。     

线粒体相关蛋白与股骨头坏死关联性研究进展

骨组织细胞凋亡和自噬学说越来越被认同,逐渐成为人们研究股骨头坏死发病机制的焦点.在刺激因素作用后,线粒体功能障碍,影响自噬,诱发骨组织细胞凋亡,最终导致股骨头坏死的发生和发展.这一关联的发现对进一步阐明本病的发病机制具有重要意义,同时检测线粒体相关蛋白可能对股骨头坏死早期诊断和预后判断有较高的参考价值,也为未来调控相关...     

线粒体自噬与帕金森病的研究进展

帕金森病是一种以黑质多巴胺能神经元选择性变性为主要病理特征的神经退行性疾病,严重影响患者的生活质量.遗传因素和环境因素是帕金森病可能诱因,但帕金森病的具体发病机制尚未完全解析.研究表明,线粒体自噬异常是神经退行性病变的重要诱因之一.线粒体自噬是细胞内稳态的“质控机制”,其调控途径与帕金森病发病机制明确相关.综述了线粒体...     

阿尔茨海默症中的线粒体自噬

线粒体自噬是细胞进化过程中产生的一种通过自噬选择性清除受损线粒体的机制,及时清除损伤的线粒体对维持细胞正常生理功能具有重要作用。在阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer′s disease,AD)患者的神经元中,当淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid,Aβ)和微管相关蛋白(microtubule associated protein,Tau)在线粒体中积累时,轻微损伤的线粒体通过分裂融合过程,保证部分子代线粒体内部环境的稳定,而严重损伤的子代线粒体则通过被自噬体包被,进行选择性线粒体自噬过程予以清除。当此系统功能受阻时,神经元中出现显著的线粒体运输、动力学异常等功能障碍,导致AD病理改变加重。因此,线粒体自噬在AD中扮演着重要角色。越来越多的证据提示,对线粒体自噬的调控可能为AD的治疗提供一种新方法。     

核转录因子TR3的转位与细胞凋亡

在诸多凋亡路径中 ,线粒体膜的渗透性改变是导致多种凋亡关键分子从线粒体膜内腔释放出来的主要原因。这些分子包括胱天蛋白酶原 (ｐｒｏ ｃａｓｐａｓｅ)、细胞色素ｃ(胱天蛋白酶的激活剂 )、Ｓｍａｃ/Ｄｉａｂｌｏ(胱天蛋白酶的协同激活剂 ) [1] 等。Ｌｉ等[2 ] 新近发现了一种凋亡前期转录因子ＴＲ3,又称作Ｎｕｒ77或ＮＧ ＦＩＢ ,通常它存在于细胞核中 ,某种情况下也能转移到线粒体中 ,并引起线粒体膜的渗透性变化 ,最终导致细胞凋亡。ＴＲ3是一种类固醇 甲状腺激素 类维生素Ａ类转录因子 ,它有一个中央锌指状ＤＮＡ结合结构域 ,在其两…     

TIGAR在脑缺血中作用的研究进展

TP53诱导的糖酵解和凋亡调节剂(TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator,TIGAR)是参与p53引起的糖酵解和凋亡的重要因素,其与代谢稳态关系密切.TIGAR可通过减轻氧化应激、自噬、凋亡、炎症以及线粒体功能障碍来减轻缺血性脑损伤,发挥神经保护作用.现就TIGA...     

线粒体蛋白酶与人类疾病

线粒体是真核细胞的重要细胞器,在能量转换、细胞应激、脂质合成以及细胞凋亡中具有调节作用.许多线粒体蛋白酶参与蛋白质运输、加工激活和降解过程.其中, ATP依赖性的线粒体蛋白酶通过其AAA+结构域(ATP associated multiple activity domain, AAA domain)利用ATP水解来执行线粒体蛋白质质量控制和调节蛋白降解.线粒体蛋白酶活性的改变会导致线粒体功能障碍,从而导致多种人类疾病,包括心血管疾病、神经退行性疾病、衰老和肿瘤等.本文重点综述线粒体蛋白酶1(Lon protease 1, LONP1)、酪蛋白水解蛋白酶P(caseinolytic protease, ClpP)、m-AAA(IMM-embedded AAA face to matrix)和i-AAA(IMM-embedded AAA face to intermembrane space)蛋白酶四种ATP依赖性线粒体蛋白酶及其功能,并阐述其与人类疾病的相关性和临床意义.     

线粒体与神经系统退行性疾病

现在普遍认为线粒体是控制凋亡的中心 ,线粒体功能的失调可以导致许多神经系统退行性疾病的发生。神经元死亡是一些神经系统退行性疾病的共同特征 ,其中包括帕金森氏病 (ＰＤ)、阿尔茨海默病(ＡＤ)、亨廷顿舞蹈病 (ＨＤ)以及肌萎缩型侧索硬化症(ＡＬＳ)等 ,这些疾病的遗传因素和环境因素现已得到确认 ,其中包括氧化应激 ,Ｃａ2 平衡失调 ,线粒体的功能失调以及胱天蛋白酶 (ｃａｓｐａｓｅ)的激活。研究促进或抑制神经元凋亡的机制可以为预防和治疗神经系统退行性疾病提供新的思路和方法。在一些哺乳动物不同类型的衰老细胞中已发现线粒体膜…     

Unbiased Cell-based Screening in a Neuronal Cell Model of Batten Disease Highlights an Interaction between Ca2+ Homeostasis,Autophagy, and CLN3 Protein Function

Abnormal accumulation of undigested macromolecules, often disease-specific, is a major feature of lysosomal and neurodegenerative disease and is frequently attributed to defective autophagy. The mechanistic underpinnings of the autophagy defects are the subject of intense research, which is aided by genetic disease models. To gain an improved understanding of the pathways regulating defective autophagy specifically in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (JNCL or Batten disease), a neurodegenerative disease of childhood, we developed and piloted a GFP-microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (GFP-LC3) screening assay to identify, in an unbiased fashion, genotype-sensitive small molecule autophagy modifiers, employing a JNCL neuronal cell model bearing the most common disease mutation in CLN3. Thapsigargin, a sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA) Ca²⁺ pump inhibitor, reproducibly displayed significantly more activity in the mouse JNCL cells, an effect that was also observed in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived JNCL neural progenitor cells. The mechanism of thapsigargin sensitivity was Ca²⁺-mediated, and autophagosome accumulation in JNCL cells could be reversed by Ca²⁺ chelation. Interrogation of intracellular Ca²⁺ handling highlighted alterations in endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrial, and lysosomal Ca²⁺ pools and in store-operated Ca²⁺ uptake in JNCL cells. These results further support an important role for the CLN3 protein in intracellular Ca²⁺ handling and in autophagic pathway flux and establish a powerful new platform for therapeutic screening.     

Altered levels of α-synuclein and sphingolipids in Batten disease lymphoblast cells

Batten disease (juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by blindness, seizures, cognitive decline, and early death due to the inherited mutation of the CLN3 gene. Although α-synuclein and sphingolipids are relevant for the pathogenesis of some neuronal disorders, little attention has been paid to their role in Batten disease. To identify the molecular factors linked to autophagy and apoptotic cell death in Batten disease, the levels of α-synuclein, sphingomyelin, and gangliosides were examined. We observed enhanced levels of α-synuclein oligomers and gangliosides GM1, GM2, and GM3 and reduced levels of sphingomyelin and autophagy in Batten disease lymphoblast cells compared with normal lymphoblast cells, possibly resulting in a higher rate of apoptosis typically found in Batten disease lymphoblast cells.     

Autophagy is disrupted in a knock-in mouse model of juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis

Juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is caused by mutation of a novel, endosomal/lysosomal membrane protein encoded by CLN3. The observation that the mitochondrial ATPase subunit c protein accumulates in this disease suggests that autophagy, a pathway that regulates mitochondrial turnover, may be disrupted. To test this hypothesis, we examined the autophagic pathway in Cln3(Deltaex7/8) knock-in mice and CbCln3(Deltaex7/8) cerebellar cells, accurate genetic models of juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. In homozygous knock-in mice, we found that the autophagy marker LC3-II was increased, and mammalian target of rapamycin was down-regulated. Moreover, isolated autophagic vacuoles and lysosomes from homozygous knock-in mice were less mature in their ultrastructural morphology than the wild-type organelles, and subunit c accumulated in autophagic vacuoles. Intriguingly, we also observed subunit c accumulation in autophagic vacuoles in normal aging mice. Upon further investigation of the autophagic pathway in homozygous knock-in cerebellar cells, we found that LC3-positive vesicles were altered and overlap of endocytic and lysosomal dyes was reduced when autophagy was stimulated, compared with wildtype cells. Surprisingly, however, stimulation of autophagy did not significantly impact cell survival, but inhibition of autophagy led to cell death. Together these observations suggest that autophagy is disrupted in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, likely at the level of autophagic vacuolar maturation, and that activation of autophagy may be a prosurvival feedback response in the disease process.     

The Batten disease gene CLN3 confers resistance to endoplasmic reticulum stress induced by tunicamycin

Mutations in CLN3 gene cause juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (JNCL or Batten disease), an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by the accumulation of ceroid lipofuscin within lysosomes. The function of the CLN3 protein remains unclear and is presumed to be related to Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. To investigate the function of CLN3 in the ER stress signaling pathway, we measured proliferation and apoptosis in cells transfected with normal and mutant CLN3 after treatment with the ER stress inducer tunicamycin (TM). We found that overexpression of CLN3 was sufficient in conferring increased resistance to ER stress. Wild-type CLN3 protected cells from TM-induced apoptosis and increased cell proliferation. Overexpression of wild-type CLN3 enhanced expression of the ER chaperone protein, glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), and reduced expression of the proapoptotic protein CCAAT/-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP). In contrast, overexpression of mutant CLN3 or siRNA knockdown of CLN3 produced the opposite effect. Together, our data suggest that the lack of CLN3 function in cells leads to a failure of management in the response to ER stress and this may be the key deficit in JNCL that causes neuronal degeneration.     

Loss of CLN3, the gene mutated in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis,leads to metabolic impairment and autophagy induction in retinal pigment epithelium

Juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (JNCL, aka. juvenile Batten disease or CLN3 disease) is a lysosomal storage disease characterized by progressive blindness, seizures, cognitive and motor failures, and premature death. JNCL is caused by mutations in the Ceroid Lipofuscinosis, Neuronal 3 (CLN3) gene, whose function is unclear. Although traditionally considered a neurodegenerative disease, CLN3 disease displays eye-specific effects: Vision loss not only is often one of the earliest symptoms of JNCL, but also has been reported in non-syndromic CLN3 disease. Here we described the roles of CLN3 protein in maintaining healthy retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and normal vision. Using electroretinogram, fundoscopy and microscopy, we showed impaired visual function, retinal autofluorescent lesions, and RPE disintegration and metaplasia/hyperplasia in a Cln3 ~ 1 kb-deletion mouse model [1] on C57BL/6J background. Utilizing a combination of biochemical analyses, RNA-Seq, Seahorse XF bioenergetic analysis, and Stable Isotope Resolved Metabolomics (SIRM), we further demonstrated that loss of CLN3 increased autophagic flux, suppressed mTORC1 and Akt activities, enhanced AMPK activity, and up-regulated gene expression of the autophagy-lysosomal system in RPE-1 cells, suggesting autophagy induction. This CLN3 deficiency induced autophagy induction coincided with decreased mitochondrial oxygen consumption, glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and ATP production. We also reported for the first time that loss of CLN3 led to glycogen accumulation despite of impaired glycogen synthesis. Our comprehensive analyses shed light on how loss of CLN3 affect autophagy and metabolism. This work suggests possible links among metabolic impairment, autophagy induction and lysosomal storage, as well as between RPE atrophy/degeneration and vision loss in JNCL.     

CLN3 Deficient Cells Display Defects in the ARF1-Cdc42 Pathway and Actin-Dependent Events

Juvenile Batten disease (juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, JNCL) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease caused by mutations in CLN3, a protein of undefined function. Cell lines derived from patients or mice with CLN3 deficiency have impairments in actin-regulated processes such as endocytosis, autophagy, vesicular trafficking, and cell migration. Here we demonstrate the small GTPase Cdc42 is misregulated in the absence of CLN3, and thus may be a common link to multiple cellular defects. We discover that active Cdc42 (Cdc42-GTP) is elevated in endothelial cells from CLN3 deficient mouse brain, and correlates with enhanced PAK-1 phosphorylation, LIMK membrane recruitment, and altered actin-driven events. We also demonstrate dramatically reduced plasma membrane recruitment of the Cdc42 GTPase activating protein, ARHGAP21. In line with this, GTP-loaded ARF1, an effector of ARHGAP21 recruitment, is depressed. Together these data implicate misregulated ARF1-Cdc42 signaling as a central defect in JNCL cells, which in-turn impairs various cell functions. Furthermore our findings support concerted action of ARF1, ARHGAP21, and Cdc42 to regulate fluid phase endocytosis in mammalian cells. The ARF1-Cdc42 pathway presents a promising new avenue for JNCL therapeutic development.     

DRAM Is Involved in Regulating Nucleoside Analog-Induced Neuronal Autophagy in a p53-Independent Manner

The widespread use of combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART) has not decreased the prevalence of HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND), a type of neurodegenerative disease, even though cART effectively inhibits virus colonization in the central nervous system. Therefore, anti-retroviral agents cannot be fully excluded from the pathogenesis of HAND. Our previous study reported that long-term nucleoside analogue (NA) exposure induced mitochondrial toxicity in the cortical neurons of HAND patients and mice, but the exact mechanism of NA-associated neurotoxicity has remained unclear. Alteration of autophagy can result in protein aggregation and the accumulation of dysfunctional organelles, which are hallmarks of some neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we first found increased autophagy in cortical autopsy specimens of AIDS patients. We then found that a low dose of NAs could stimulate autophagy in primary cultured neurons, while a high dose of NAs could induce only neuronal apoptosis. The level of NA-induced Bcl-2 and Bax expressions determined whether neuronal autophagy or apoptosis occurred. Furthermore, the level of NA-induced neuronal apoptosis correlated with the dysfunction of cellular DNA polymerase gamma. Damage-regulated autophagy modulator (DRAM) overexpression was also involved in NA-induced neuronal autophagy. p53 played a role in the regulation of NA-induced neuronal apoptosis, but its role in NA-associated neuronal autophagy was uncertain. Our results suggest that DRAM is involved in the regulation of NA-induced neuronal autophagy in a p53-independent manner. Further research is needed to investigate the underlying mechanism.     

Lithium rescues the impaired autophagy process in CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) cerebellar cells and reduces neuronal vulnerability to cell death via IMPase inhibition

Juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (Batten disease) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutation in CLN3. Defective autophagy and concomitant accumulation of autofluorescence enriched with mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit c were previously discovered in Cln3 mutant knock-in mice. In this study, we show that treatment with lithium reduces numbers of LC3-positive autophagosomes and accumulation of LC3-II in Cln3 mutant knock-in cerebellar cells (CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) ). Lithium, an inhibitor of GSK3 and IMPase, reduces the accumulation of mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit c and autofluorescence in CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) cells, and mitigates the abnormal subcellular distribution of acidic vesicles in the cells. L690,330, an IMPase inhibitor, is as effective as lithium in restoring autophagy in CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) cells. Moreover, lithium or down-regulation of IMPase expression protects CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) cells from cell death induced by amino acid deprivation. These results suggest that lithium overcomes the autophagic defect in CbCln3(Δex7/8/Δex7/8) cerebellar cells probably through IMPase, thereby reducing their vulnerability to cell death.     

Essential control of mitochondrial morphology and function by chaperone-mediated autophagy through degradation of PARK7

As a selective degradation system, chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and survival under stress conditions. Increasing evidence points to an important role for the dysfunction of CMA in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). However, the mechanisms by which CMA regulates neuronal survival under stress and its role in neurodegenerative diseases are not fully understood. PARK7/DJ-1 is an autosomal recessive familial PD gene. PARK7 plays a critical role in antioxidative response and its dysfunction leads to mitochondrial defects. In the current study, we showed that CMA mediated the lysosome-dependent degradation of PARK7. Importantly, CMA preferentially removed the oxidatively damaged nonfunctional PARK7 protein. Furthermore, CMA protected cells from mitochondrial toxin MPP⁺-induced changes in mitochondrial morphology and function, and increased cell viability. These protective effects were lost under PARK7-deficiency conditions. Conversely, overexpression of PARK7 significantly attenuated the mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death exacerbated by blocking CMA under oxidative stress. Thus, our findings reveal a mechanism by which CMA protects mitochondrial function by degrading nonfunctional PARK7 and maintaining its homeostasis, and dysregulation of this pathway may contribute to the neuronal stress and death in PD pathogenesis.