Revisiting the Asian second-generation advantage

Asian Americans comprise 6.4% of the US population, but account for over 20% of the country’s elite Ivy League students. While researchers have studied mechanisms that promote an “Asian second-generation advantage” in education, including immigrant hyper-selectivity, few have examined whether this advantage extends into the labour market. Focusing on the five largest Asian groups – Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, and Koreans – we revisit the thesis of Asian second-generation advantage. We argue that how we define advantage – as outcomes or mobility, in education or in occupations – matters. Our analyses reveal that all five second-generation Asian groups attain exceptional educational outcomes, but vary in intergenerational mobility. Second-generation Vietnamese exhibit the greatest intergenerational gains, followed by second-generation Chinese and Koreans; second-generation Indians and Filipinos experience none. Moreover, this advantage disappears in the labour market for all groups, except for Chinese, revealing the domain-specific nature of the Asian second-generation advantage.     

Revisiting the Asian second-generation advantage: response to comment by L.J Zigerell

In his critical comment, Zigerell focuses on three related, yet distinct, claims in our work. First, second-generation Asians are over-credentialed in education to achieve professional parity with whites. Second, second-generation Asians' educational advantage over whites disappears in the labour market where Asians are only as likely as whites to attain a managerial or professional occupation. Third, second-generation Asians might face a bamboo ceiling in the workplace, not unlike the glass ceiling that women face. In this rejoinder, we argue that Zigerell conflates these three distinct claims, and the conflation of these claims underlies his criticism of our work. As a result, his criticism fails to negate the substantive conclusion of our research.     

Socioeconomic differentials among single-race and multi-race Japanese Americans

Using data from the 2000 US Census, this study investigates various groups of single-race and multi-race Japanese Americans in terms of their schooling and wages. The results indicate that all categories of Japanese Americans tend to have higher schooling than whites. Single-race Japanese Americans tend to have higher schooling than multi-race Japanese Americans, and 1.5-generation Japanese Americans tend to have higher schooling than native-born Japanese Americans. With the exception of foreign-educated, immigrant Japanese Americans, most of the wage differentials are explained by schooling and a few other demographic characteristics. These results are rather inconsistent with traditional assimilation theory which posits rising socioeconomic attainments with increasing acculturation. Instead, the findings suggest a reverse pattern by which the groups that are more closely related to Japan tend to have higher levels of educational attainment which then become translated into higher wages.     

Explaining Asian American achievement

ABSTRACT

Jennifer Lee and Min Zhou’s The Asian American Achievement Paradox is a remarkable analysis of the educational upward mobility of Chinese and Vietnamese Americans in Los Angeles. It also provides important insights about the status of contemporary Asian Americans more generally. While critical of the ‘model minority’ thesis, the authors take seriously the role of culture in fostering educational attainment. However, their emphasis on immigrant selectivity and individual psychology may be misplaced when it comes to understanding the achievement of second-generation groups.     

The reigning misperception about culture and Asian American achievement

ABSTRACT

Asian Americans graduate from college at higher rates than other groups, and evince educational outcomes that match or exceed those of their parents. They comprise about 25 per cent of the student body in Ivy League institutions, despite making up only 6 per cent of the U.S. population. While it may be tempting to reduce Asian American academic achievement to Asian culture, and Confucian values more specifically, we provide disconfirming evidence, both within the United States and beyond, to show the fallacy of this logic. Contemporary U.S. Asian immigrants are “hyper-selected”: they are more likely to have graduated from college than their non-migrant counterparts, and also more likely to be college-educated than the U.S. mean. Hyper-selectivity and its spillover effects explain the exceptional educational outcomes of Asian Americans. It is time that we laid to rest the reigning misperception that Asian American academic achievement can be reduced to Asian culture or Confucian values.     

Mass culture versus class culture: some reflections on The Asian American Achievement Paradox

ABSTRACT

This comment argues that scholars have been too quick to dismiss Confucian culture as an explanation for the exceptional educational attainment of second generation Asian Americans. It shows that, for centuries, all classes in Confucian societies perceived education as the engine of upward mobility, not merely elites. For this reason, the children of working class Chinese and Japanese immigrants outperformed whites already before World War II. Furthermore, the educational outcomes of non-Confucian Asian Americans turn out to be unexceptional after their family backgrounds are taken into account. Thus, to the extent that Asian American schooling levels are unusual, it seems premature to attribute that achievement to class culture rather than mass culture.     

Cognitive differences in dream content and boundary structure between Asian and Pacific Islander Americans and European Americans using quantitative content analysis.

Cognitive differences in boundary thickness and dream content were investigated in Asian and Pacific Islander American and European American undergraduates (N=30). Participants completed Hartmann's Boundary Questionnaire and kept dream journals for 4 weeks. Eleven dream reports per participant (330 total dream reports) were scored using Hall-Van de Castle's System of Content Analysis and the Bizarreness Scoring System. The Asian and Pacific Islander Americans scored thicker than the European Americans on the Boundary Questionnaire. They also showed trends toward shorter dream reports that were more dense (i.e., increased dream elements per dream length), with less fragility. Differences in dream bizarreness and verbs were nonsignificant, but did yield medium effect sizes. These results are discussed in terms of underlying cultural and cognitive differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disparities in the risk of the ER/PR/HER2 breast cancer subtypes among Asian Americans in California

BackgroundPopulation-based studies of breast cancer often aggregate all Asians into a single category termed Asian/Pacific Islander (API).Purpose(1) Describe the demographic and clinicopathologic features of early breast cancer utilizing all eight ER/PR/HER2 subtypes among white, black, Hispanic, American Indian, seven Asian ethnicities, and the aggregate API category; (2) ascertain the risk of the ER+/PR+/HER2+, ER−/PR−/HER2−, and ER−/PR−/HER2+ subtypes when compared with the ER+/PR+/HER2− subtype, among seven Asian ethnicities versus non-Hispanic white women and (3) contrast the results with the risk of these same subtypes when using the aggregate API category.MethodsUsing the California Cancer Registry, we identified 225,441 cases of stages 1–4 first primary female invasive breast cancer. Logistic regression was used to assess the association of race with the ER+/PR+/HER2+, ER−/PR−/HER2− (triple-negative), and the ER−/PR−/HER2+ subtypes versus the ER+/PR+/HER2− when adjusted for stage, age, tumor grade, and socioeconomic status. Models were fit separately for each subtype. Odds ratios for the seven Asian ethnicities and the aggregate API category using non-Hispanic white women as the reference category were computed.ResultsThere was an increased risk of the ER+/PR+/HER2+ subtype for the combined API category (OR = 1.16; 95% CI = 1.09–1.23). But only Southeast Asians (OR = 1.17; 95% CI = 1.04–1.31), Filipino (OR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.12–1.36), and Korean (OR = 1.63; 95% CI = 1.38–1.99) women had an increased risk of this subtype. The reduced risk of the triple-negative subtype seen in APIs (OR = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.79–0.90) was only noted in Chinese (OR = 0.80; 95% CI = 0.70–0.91) and Filipino (OR = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.58–0.73) women whereas Indian Continent (OR = 1.25; 95% CI = 1.01–1.53) women had an increased risk of the triple-negative subtype.The race × stage interaction was statistically significant for the ER−/PR−/HER2+ subtype (p < 0.05). When stratified by stage, there was no statistically significant association of race with subtype in stages 3 and 4. APIs had an increased risk of the ER−/PR−/HER2+ subtype in stage 1 (OR = 1.59; 95% CI = 1.37–1.75) and stage 2 (OR = 1.42; 95% CI = 1.28–1.58) but this risk was not seen in Pacific Islander, Indian Continent, and Japanese women for either stage.ConclusionsAmong the Asian ethnicities, there is marked variability in the demographic and clinicopathologic features of breast cancer. Use of the ER/PR/HER2 subtypes reveals that the risk of the ER−/PR−/HER2−, ER+/PR+/HER2+, and ER−/PR−/HER2+ subtypes varies among the Asian population. The API category, is sometimes, but not always reflective of all Asian women.     

How selective migration enables socioeconomic mobility

ABSTRACT

Jennifer Lee and Min Zhou’s new book, The Asian American Achievement Paradox, revives Asian American scholarship from a period of relative stagnation and elevates the discussion from the morass of cultural essentialism. Its major contributions are to extensively articulate: (1) how much cultural explanations are actually class-based explanations and (2) how selective migration creates the conditions that promote social mobility. This book resolves empirical paradoxes in the scholarship and engages broader debates on race, immigration and inequality.     

The upcoming new elite among children of immigrants: a cross-country and cross-sector comparison

ABSTRACT

The European-born children of immigrants, often referred to as the second generation, play an important role in the academic debate about integration and assimilation. The successful second generation, defined in terms of possessing a higher education diploma and or professional position, receives increasing attention. In this special issue, we will look at the most successful group: the upcoming “elite” among the descendants of migrants from Turkey, based on data gathered in the ELITES, Pathways to Success project. In this research project we deliberately selected on the dependent variable: being professionally successful in managerial jobs in the corporate business sector, the corporate law sector and the education sector.     

Ethnic and sub-ethnic attachments among Chinese,Korean, and Indian immigrants in New York City

This article compares ethnic and sub-ethnic attachments in Chinese, Indian, and Korean immigrants in New York City, based on results of a survey. Indian respondents, with much higher levels of education and fluency in English, show a lower level of cultural ethnic attachment than the other two groups. The Chinese show the lowest level of formal ethnic affiliation, mainly due to their much lower level of religious affiliation. All three groups show extremely high levels of informal ethnic networks. However, Chinese and Indian respondents largely limit their close friendships to their sub-ethnic group, based on national origin, religion, regional origin and/or language, while Korean respondents, characterized by group homogeneity, tend to maintain close friendships with all other Koreans. Much larger proportions of Chinese and Indian respondents than Koreans choose the sub-ethnic identity label and they show much lower levels of loyalty to their homeland than Korean respondents.     

First generation decline: downward mobility among refugees and immigrants

Although immigration researchers, like other social scientists who study mobility, usually look only at upward mobility, immigrants and refugees often suffer from downward mobility. This is particularly true of new arrivals who were professionals in their country of origin and now work as technicians, although newcomers of lower status may experience it as well. For some immigrants and refugees, downward mobility is temporary; others may suffer from it all their lives and even pass the pain on to their children.

This paper discusses the various impacts of downward mobility, the ways immigrants and refugees cope with them successfully or not, and the consequences of their class and status decline for their children. The paper can be read as a follow up to my earlier articles in Ethnic and Racial Studies, ‘Second Generation Decline’, (1992) and ‘Acculturation, Assimilation and Mobility’ (2007).     

Ethnic Variation in the Thymidylate Synthase Enhancer Region Polymorphism among Caucasian and Asian Populations

Thymidylate synthase (TS) regulates the production of DNA synthesis precursors and is an important target of cancer chemotherapy. A tandem repeat sequence in a TS promoter enhancer region (TSER) was recently identified. Polymorphic variation affected in vitro expression levels of the gene. We evaluated the influence of ethnicity on TSER genotype. Allele frequency was similar in Caucasian and Southwest Asian subjects. However, homozygous triple repeat subjects were twice as common in Chinese subjects (67%) than in Caucasian subjects (38%). This demonstrates significant ethnic variation in a TS gene regulatory element which may have significant impact on pyrimidine homeostasis and drug therapy.     

Clubs of culture and capital: immigrant and second-generation incorporation in a new destination school

The influx of Latin American immigrants into the US South since the early 1990s has changed the demographic face of the region, particularly among school-aged populations where the rate of growth among Latinos has been the fastest. Despite an emerging literature addressing changing racial and ethnic relations in the New US South, relatively little research has addressed the incorporation of Latino youths within southern schools. Relying on data from a four-year ethnographic and in-depth interview study in one North Carolina town, findings suggest powerful benefits of ethnic-identity based clubs for Latino youths in new immigrant destination schools. While both Latino and African American respondents faced discrimination within their community, Latino students received more formal support at school, which helped shield them from the negative impacts of discrimination.     

Asymmetric male and female genetic histories among Native Americans from Eastern North America

Previous studies have investigated the human population history of eastern North America by examining mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation among Native Americans, but these studies could only reconstruct maternal population history. To evaluate similarities and differences in the maternal and paternal population histories of this region, we obtained DNA samples from 605 individuals, representing 16 indigenous populations. After amplifying the amelogenin locus to identify males, we genotyped 8 binary polymorphisms and 10 microsatellites in the male-specific region of the Y chromosome. This analysis identified 6 haplogroups and 175 haplotypes. We found that sociocultural factors have played a more important role than language or geography in shaping the patterns of Y chromosome variation in eastern North America. Comparisons with previous mtDNA studies of the same samples demonstrate that male and female demographic histories differ substantially in this region. Postmarital residence patterns have strongly influenced genetic structure, with patrilocal and matrilocal populations showing different patterns of male and female gene flow. European contact also had a significant but sex-specific impact due to a high level of male-mediated European admixture. Finally, this study addresses long-standing questions about the history of Iroquoian populations by suggesting that the ancestral Iroquoian population lived in southeastern North America.     

Multilevel Factors Influencing Hepatitis B Screening and Vaccination among Vietnamese Americans in Atlanta,Georgia

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection may lead to liver cirrhosis, chronic liver disease, and liver cancer. Immunization rates are suboptimal among Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders (AAPIs), who remain disproportionately affected by these illnesses. We investigated socioecological factors affecting HBV prevention among 316 Vietnamese Americans in Atlanta, Georgia. Social and community support of HBV vaccination was associated with screening (OR=1.69, 95% CI [1.21,2.38]), vaccination (OR=1.89, [1.27,2.81]), and intent to vaccinate (OR=1.77, [1.13,2.78]). Misconceptions decreased screening likelihood (OR=0.67, [0.46,0.99]) and vaccination (OR=0.55, [0.35,0.86]). Those able to pay for medical treatment (OR=1.23, [1.01,1.50]) were also more likely immunized, and greater transportation access (OR=1.42, [1.07,1.87]) was associated with greater intention to vaccinate. Multi-level factors facilitated HBV vaccination in this population. Tailored, culturally appropriate communication strategies will positively influence immunization uptake.     

The multiplier effect: how the accumulation of cultural and social capital explains steep upward social mobility of children of low-educated immigrants

ABSTRACT

We introduce what we have coined the multiplier effect. We explain the steep upward mobility of children of low-educated immigrants by studying how they overcome obstacles on their regular pathway, via alternative routes or through loopholes in the education and labour market system. The idea of the multiplier effect is that they virtually propel themselves forward in their careers. Essential is that each successful step forward offers new possibilities on which they build, thereby accumulating cultural and social capital and multiplying their chances of success. Initial small differences with their less successful co-ethnic peers generate an increasingly wider gap over time. Cultural and social capital theories primarily explain the reproduction of inequalities in society. The multiplier effect explains the breaking of the perpetual cycle of this reproduction, enabling steep upward mobility even when this group does not initially possess the right cultural and social capital to be successful.     

Balancing stigma and status: racial and class identities among middle-class Haitian youth

This article examines the identity formation of middle-class Haitian youth. Segmented assimilation theory predicts that the Haitian second generation will integrate into the black American underclass or maintain strong ethnic group identities. The black middle class, however, is an unexplored pathway of cultural assimilation. This paper uses the literature on the racial and class experiences of the black American middle class as a departure point for understanding the boundary work of middle-class Haitian youth. Based on qualitative interviews and a focus group, we uncover the mechanisms of identity formation for this invisible population. Racial, ethnic and class boundaries compel Haitian youths to create strategies of either empowerment or distancing. They negotiate between their middle-class status and ethnoracial exclusion in a racially segregated neighbourhood, an ethnically homogenous church and a mixed-race school setting. This study's findings extend our theoretical understandings of middle-class immigrants and their identity work.