Parentage verification of a mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) using polymorphic microsatellite markers

The Hartmann's mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) has been classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species. Approximately 300 individuals, maintained in zoos throughout Europe and the United States of America, are being managed as part of a captive breeding program. An International Studbook is maintained for the Hartmann's mountain zebra at Marwell Zoological Park, UK. Despite the use of a variety of means to identify each individual in a captive herd, confusion sometimes occurs, resulting in the misidentification of an animal. Here we report the first application of DNA typing, using polymorphic microsatellite loci, to resolve a misidentification involving two female Hartmann's mountain zebra. This case demonstrates the way in which genetic tests derived from a related domesticated species may be used as an effective tool for captive management. Further, this case highlights the need to be able to conclusively identify captive individuals and to maintain accurate pedigree information for successful captive management. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Soziale Organisation und Verhaltensweisen von Hartmann-und Bergzebras (Equus zebra hartmannae und E. z. zebra)

• 1 Die Hartmann- und Bergzebras sind in Familien und Hengstgruppen organisiert, die wie die der Steppenzebras dauerhafte Einheiten darstellen dürften. Ein Teil der Hengste lebt solitär (Hartmannzebra).
• 2 Die Familiengruppen bestehen aus einem Hengst, 1–4 Stuten und deren Fohlen. Die größte Familie hatte 9 Tiere, der Durchschnitt lag bei 4,7 (Hartmannzebra).
• 3 In den Familien besteht eine Rangordnung; der Hengst ist das ranghöchste Tier. Beim Anmarsch zur Tränke führt im allgemeinen der Hengst; die Stuten reihen sich gemäß ihrer Rangordnung hinter ihm ein. Beim Weggehen führt die ranghöchste Stute und der Hengst übernimmt die Nachhut.
• 4 Die Hengstgruppen bestehen aus erwachsenen und halberwachsenen Hengsten. Es führt ein erwachsener Hengst. Eine Rangordnung unter den erwachsenen Hengsten war nicht nachzuweisen.
• 5 Für eine über die Gruppen hinausgehende Organisation ergaben sich keine Hinweise, ebensowenig für Territorialität.
• 6 4 verschiedene Lautäußerungen konnten festgestellt werden: ein Kontaktruf, 2 Warnlaute und ein Ausdruck des Schmerzes.
• 7 Fohlen und erwachsene Tiere spielen Lauf-, Kampf- und Begrüßungsspiele.
• 8 Die Begrüßung besteht aus naso-nasalem und naso-genitalem Kontakt, woran sich gegenseitiges Auflegen des Kopfes auf die Kruppe anschließt. Bei Begrüßungen zwischen ungleichen Partnern zeigte der schwächere gelegentlich das “Rossigkeitsgesicht”, das als Demutsgebärde zu deuten ist.
• 9 Das Drohen entspricht dem der übrigen Equiden. Beim Kampf können Lauf-, Beiß- und Schlagkämpfe unterschieden werden.
• 10 Die Zebras suhlen im feuchten Sand an den Tränken (Hartmannzebra), nehmen Staubbäder und scheuern sich am Boden und an Felsblöcken. Eine soziale Hautpflege scheint nicht vorzukommen.
• 11 Die Hengste bedecken mit ihren Ausscheidungen die der Stuten und anderer Hengste.
• 12 Die Hartmannzebras graben in Flußbetten nach sauberem Wasser. Diese Wasserstellen werden von vielen anderen Tier-Arten benutzt.
• 13 Zu Artfremden nehmen die Hartmann- und Bergzebras keinen Kontakt auf.
• 14 Die soziale Organisation der Hartmann- und Bergzebras entspricht der der Steppenzebras.

     

Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli

On the assumption that infanticide exists in plains zebra, as reported for horses, Equus caballus, we tested the following hypothesis. Introducing a new zebra male into a herd of breeding females should increase foal mortality in comparison with herds in which the sire of the foals is still present. The younger the foal, the more likely infanticide should be. We collected data from five herds in two zoological gardens in the Czech Republic. We found nine records of infanticide in plains zebra and three cases of abortions that were probably induced by forced copulation. We analysed additional indirect data to investigate the possibility of introduced males causing other abortions. Abortions were three times more likely in herds with introduced males than with only fathers present. Postnatal mortality of the foals was four times greater with introduced males than with fathers. No indication of a sex preference was observed for infanticide by a new male for either abortions or postpartum deaths. When we combined all records involving introduced males, the probability of foal death was greatest when the new male joined the herd just after conception and decreased with increasing time between conception and date of the new male introduction (the chance of a foal surviving was less than 5% just after conception and more than 50% at the time of delivery). Mortality of foals did not depend on whether the new male was introduced before or after the foal was born. Survival increased to more than 60% after the foal reached 1 month of age. Our results suggest that captive plains zebra show the highest occurrence of infanticide reported among ungulates. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Chromosome homologies between man and mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) and description of a new ancestral synteny involving sequences homologous to human chromosomes 4 and 8

Using human chromosome painting probes, we looked for homologies between human and mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae, Equidae, Perissodactyla) karyotypes. Except for two very short segments, all euchromatic regions were found to have a human homologous chromosome segment. Conserved syntenies previously described in various mammalian orders were detected. Each synteny corresponded to a chromosomal region homologous to two parts of human chromosomes: HSA3 and HSA21, HSA7 and HSA16, HSA12 and HSA22, and HSA16 and HSA19. Chromosomal segments homologous to a part of HSA11 and HSA19p are found syntenic in zebra, horse and donkey, suggesting that this group of synteny has been inherited from an Equidae or Perissodactyla common ancestor. A synteny of segments homologous to parts of HSA4 and HSA8 was observed in zebra and horse. It also exists in the rabbit (Lagomorpha) and several Carnivora species. A second group of taxa which does not have this region of synteny is composed of primates, Chiroptera and Insectivora, and possibly also Cetacea and Scandantia. Thus, the presence or absence of this region of synteny may separate two groups of eutherian mammals.     

Male harassment influences female movements and associations in Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi)

In traditional models for social organization, female movementsand association patterns track resource distribution, whereasmales track females. More recently, this model has been expandedto include feedback effects of male behavior, especially sexualharassment, on female decisions. In Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi),males defend territories containing resources attractive tofemales, who form unstable groups. Past research has explainedfemale behavior based on resource distribution and needs alone.Lactating females have been found to have restricted movementsand fewer male associates than nonlactating females, a patternwe find in our study. This pattern has previously been attributedsolely to the higher water needs of lactation. However, in ourpopulation, both lactating and nonlactating females are typicallyclose to water. We test the hypothesis that male harassmentalso influences female ranging and associations with males.This effect is predicted to be greater for lactating femalesbecause harassment has higher costs to them. We find that lactatingfemales experience higher harassment rates than those of nonlactatingfemales. Lactating females tend to move faster during harassmentperiods, whereas nonlactating individuals do not. Lactatingfemales experience lower harassment rates if they spend moretime with a particular male, whereas nonlactating females' harassmentrates do not depend on their allocation of time to a primarymale. We suggest that females concentrate their time with onemale in order to reduce male harassment. Even in species suchas Grevy's zebra without strong male–female bonds, socialinteractions may be a significant driver of female distribution.     

Treatment of equine sarcoid in seven Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra)

Equine sarcoid has been diagnosed in endangered Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) in at least two game reserves in South Africa, with prevalence as high as 53% in Bontebok National Park. Seven Cape mountain zebras with sarcoids were treated with either surgical excision, 5-fluorouracil, allogenous vaccine, or a combination of 5-fluorouracil and allogenous vaccine. One of the two sarcoids on one of the 5-fluorouracil-treated zebras was left untreated. The microscopic features of the tumors evaluated showed either all or most of the typical epidermal and dermal histologic features of equine sarcoid. The zebras were examined 2 yr posttreatment to determine outcome. All sarcoids had resolved except on the zebra on which one of the sarcoids was left untreated. The efficacy of the three treatment methods in Cape mountain zebra is encouraging.     

Monitoring and management of the endangered Cape mountain zebra Equus zebra zebra in the Western Cape, South Africa

De Hoop Nature Reserve and a neighbouring conservancy contain the most genetically diverse subpopulation of the Endangered (IUCN) Cape mountain zebra ( Equus zebra zebra Linnaeus 1758). Although vital for the long-term stability of the meta-population, the population had received limited monitoring post-1999. We summarize data obtained during a population monitoring programme established in 2005. Ninety-nine individuals were identified indicating a decline in annual population growth from 6.6% (1995–1999) to 4.5% (1999–2005). The population was male biased and the deficit of females is likely to have prevented additional breeding herd formation resulting in excess nonbreeding males. These animals are currently of limited reproductive value to the meta-population and may be contributing to the decline in reproductive potential at De Hoop by competing for limited resources. One solution may be to translocate 'excess' males to reinforce existing small populations or establish new populations with females from elsewhere provided that a minimum of 78 animals is maintained at De Hoop to limit genetic loss. Population monitoring and effective management strategies for the De Hoop population and the meta-population are vital to ensure the long-term survival of Cape mountain zebra and for the success of other species recovery programmes.     

Reproductive characteristics of a free-ranging population of Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra)

In a population of free-ranging Cape mountain zebra, median age at first foaling was 67 months (range 38-105 months), median foaling interval was 25 months (range 13-69 months) and annual foaling rate was 32%. Foaling rates of younger and older mares were similar. Foals were born all year round with a peak corresponding to the rainy season (summer). Conception occurred later in the season when the spring was dry.     

An identification system for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray)

An identification system based on the individual stripe patterns, has been developed for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray). A taxonomic nomenclature facilitates easy field classification into a number of classes, which form the basis for a photo-filing system, and thus quick identification of individual animals.     

Testis size and onset of spermatogenesis in Cape mountain zebras (Equus zebra zebra)

Testis mass of adult Cape mountain zebra stallions (mean 70.0 g) was appreciably less than that of other zebra species and domestic horses. The histological appearance of the testes of 11-, 24- and 29-month-old colts was typically prepubertal. Spermatogenic activity of a 4-year-old stallion obtained at the end of summer was at a very low level, while a 4.5-year-old stallion obtained 6 weeks after the winter solstice showed a marked increase in spermatogenesis compared with the 4-year-old. Stallions 6.5-19 years of age collected in different seasons all showed active spermatogenesis.     

Anthrax outbreak among Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) in Samburu, Kenya

An anthrax outbreak occurred in the Wamba area of southern Samburu, Kenya, between December 2005 and March 2006. The outbreak affected equids including the endangered Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi), plain zebras (Equis Burchelli) and donkeys (Equus asinus). Most of the deaths were localized in Nkaroni area just west of Wamba town. The diagnosis of anthrax was rapidly confirmed by bacteriological methods. The relevant government departments, including the Kenya Wildlife Service and Veterinary Department, and other stakeholders were promptly informed. Fifty‐three Grevy's zebra and 26 plains zebras died from anthrax. An equal number (eighteen) of adult male and female Grevy's zebras succumbed to the disease. The outbreak affected immature and mature individuals equally. The dead plain zebras included fifteen adult females, two adult males and nine immature individuals. The Veterinary Department responded by vaccinating livestock while Kenya Wildlife Service vaccinated 620 Grevy's zebras within southern Samburu. Examination of sites at which carcasses of animals which succumbed to the disease were burnt, revealed that unsupervised burning did not eliminate anthrax spores in 42% of the cases (n = 14). There is an urgent need to incorporate strategic wildlife disease monitoring in the struggle to save Grevy's zebras and other endangered species.     

A rare fight in female plains zebra

We describe a fight between two female plains zebra (Equus burchelli). Plains zebra are ungulates with stable social groups known as harems. Female aggression rarely escalates to the level we observed. The fight immediately followed the birth of a foal to one of the females. The initiating female repeatedly kicked and bit the mother, who reacted aggressively and by guarding her foal. We present hypotheses on the causes underlying this rare event.     

Palaeozoological insights into management options for a threatened mammal: southern Africa’s Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra)

Aim Promoting population growth of genetically distinct subpopulations of Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) is crucial to the survival of the subspecies. Several important Cape mountain zebra reserves are dominated by fynbos vegetation, and population growth is limited by a lack of grassland habitat. A fossil ungulate sequence spanning the last c. 18,000 years is examined to understand the long‐term history of this conservation challenge. Location Boomplaas Cave (BPA), South Africa. Methods The fossil sequence from BPA is examined to reconstruct ungulate community dynamics in relation to climate and vegetation change over the last 18,000 years. Results Ungulates from 18,000 to 12,000 years ago suggest an expansion of open grasslands that supported a grazing ecosystem dominated by an extinct caprine antelope and equid remains attributed to E. zebra and E. quagga. At the onset of the Holocene, the grazing ungulate community disappears and small browsers and mixed feeders dominate the assemblage, indicating the loss of open grassland vegetation. Several open‐habitat grazers go extinct at this time, and Equus persists at much lower abundances. This shift can be explained by global climate change across the Pleistocene–Holocene transition. Main conclusions The fossil sequence supports contemporary observations indicating that access to open grassland is crucial to maintaining large Cape mountain zebra subpopulations. Although fynbos is abundant throughout the historic range of the Cape mountain zebra, fossil evidence suggests that such vegetation is unlikely to support dense populations. It has been suggested that the acquisition of agricultural lands that were historically converted to open grasslands for livestock could promote Cape mountain zebra population growth. Results presented here support this management option, as the open grasslands in these converted landscapes likely approximate the vegetation structure during latest Pleistocene, when grasslands were widespread and grazing ungulates abundant.     

A case of adoption and allonursing in captive plains zebra (Equus burchellii)

Although allonursing (allowing non-filial offspring to suckle) can be a costly behaviour, it has been reported for many mammals including ungulate species. However, such behaviour is very rare in equids. This is the first report on adoption and allonursing in captive plains zebra (Equus burchellii), recorded in the Dv?r Králové Zoo, Czech Republic. We observed a case of adoption of an orphaned foal by a lactating mare, who then regularly nursed two foals (filial and non-filial). The allonursing mare rejected more suckling attempts, terminated suckling bouts more often, and had a shorter suckling bout duration than other mares. When nursing both foals at the same time, the suckling bout lasted for less time than when nursing a single foal, regardless of whether it was filial or non-filial. The allonursing mare apparently did not discriminate between the filial and non-filial foal.