Protein variation,taxonomy and differentiation in five species of marmosets (genusCallithrix Erxleben, 1777)

The electrophoretic patterns of 15 protein systems codified for 20 genetic loci were investigated using horizontal electrophoresis. A total of 150 blood samples, from five species of the genusCallithrix were analyzed. Polymorphic variation was observed in 10 out 20 loci analyzed. The genotypic distributions are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The average heterozygosity (H) varied from 1% to 5%, similar to those observed for other Neotropical primates. The genetic distance coefficients revealed a phylogenetic separation of these species into two groups: (1) “argentata” (C. humeralifer andC. emiliae); (2) “jacchus” (C. jacchus, C. penicillata, andC. geoffroyi). This arrangement is according to the taxonomic arrangement proposed byHershkovitz (1977),de Vivo (1988), andMittermeier et al. (1988). The results in each group are compatible with the subspecies values recorded for the Platyrrhini. These values showed that:C. humeralifer andC. emiliae are subspecies ofC. argentata;C. jacchus, C. penicillata, andC. geoffroyi are subspecies ofC. jacchus. These results also suggest thatC. j. geoffroyi is the “jacchus” group taxon, most similar genetically to the “argentata” group.     

Development of eggs,larvae and pelagic juveniles of three Indo-Pacific ostraeiid fishes (Tetraodontiformes):Ostracion meleagris,Lactoria fornasini andL. diaphana

The eggs, larvae and pelagic juveniles ofOstracion meleagris, Lactoria fornasini andLactoria diaphana were identified from reared and field collected specimens from Hawaii, Japan, Australia and the eastern Pacific. Eggs are large and pelagic with limited chorion ornamentation and a cluster of oil droplets. At hatching, larvae are well developed, rotund, and enclosed in a dermal sac. The sac disappears and dermal plates form prior to notochord flexion. Larvae of the three species can be distinguished by their pigment patterns and development of the carapace of ossified dermal plates. Eggs of the three species could not be distinguished. The larval stage ends at a small size (< 6 mm) but the juveniles may grow to a substantial size while remaining pelagic.L. diaphana matures and spawns while pelagic in the eastern Pacific.     

Regulation of the nitrate reductase inPisum sativum andtriticum aestivum by irradiation

Nitrate reductase (NR) activity of bothPisum sativum L. cv. Bonneville andTriticum aestivum L. cv. Sonalika seedlings was influenced by the phytochrome system. Short durations of “red” irradiation (R) increased extractable levels of NR whereas subsequent short “far-red” irradiation (FR) partially inhibited the R modulated increases. Qualitatively, a negative correlation existed between thein vitro NR activities andin vivo phytochrome levels inPisum. “Blue” irradiation (B) also increased extractable levels of NR inTriticum. A partial action spectrum study made by exposing excised etiolated leaves ofTriticum and shoot apices ofPisum revealed a maximum increase in extractable NR activities and tissue nitrate level (inTriticum) at 656 nm. A partial action spectrum for the extracted enzyme ofTriticum indicated that at 700 nm the level of activity was increased (as compared to dark controls) more than by R (656 nm), FR (725 nm) or B (425 or 450 nm) irradiation, although all wavelengths used increased NR activity.     

Age changes of the carpal bones in macaques: Application of the fourier analysis on the radiographs

A method based on the Fourier analysis is proposed, which describes and analyzes the contour morphology of carpal bones by separating morphology into factors of shape and size. Here, “size” refers to the average diameter of the contour. The “shape” is expressed byshape factors which are derived from the Fourier series and the “shape” of a monkey is expressed by ashape index which is calculated fromshape factors. The age change in the morphology of the lunate and capitate ofMacaca fuscata fuscata was analyzed by this method. The development of “shape” approximately completes by 3 years of age, whereas increase in “size” begins its spurt at that age as do body weight and anterior trunk length. By applying this method to other macaque species, it was found thatM. mulatta, M. f. yakui andM. cyclopis exhibit similar patterns of growth and development of carpal bones to those ofM. f. fuscata. Patterns found inM. fascicularis differ in that its bones develop faster than in the other macaques with respect to the “shape,” but remain small with respect to the “size.”     

Two new“Meganthropus” mandibles from Java

There are now eleven known mandibular pieces from the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Java, all but one being from the Sangiran site. All of these have been assigned toHomo erectus by most authorities, while others have suggested as many as four different hominoid taxa. Two of the mandibles, Sangiran 33 (Mandible H) and“Meganthropus”D (no Sangiran number yet assigned), are described here for the first time. The two new mandibles come from the Upper Pucangan Formation and date approximately 1.2–1.4 Myr. They are morphologically compatible with other“Meganthropus” mandibles described from Java. Despite attempts by numerous authorities to place all the Sangiran hominid mandibles in the species,H. erectus, the range of variation in metric and nonmetric features of the“Meganthropus” hominids is clearly beyond the know variation found inH. erectus. “Meganthropus” could represent a speciation from the well-knownH. erectus.     

Coexistence of congeneric spiny lobsters on coral reefs: differences in conspecific aggregation patterns and their potential antipredator benefits

Den sharing by conspecific spiny lobsters (aggregation) is modulated by chemical attraction but may confer several, not necessarily mutually exclusive, antipredator byproduct benefits: a “guide effect”, which only benefits the individual attracted to a sheltered conspecific; a “dilution effect”, which reduces per-capita risk of predation simply through aggregation; or active “group defense”. Each potential benefit has a different set of predictors (relationships between aggregation and conspecific or predator densities), but conflicting results could suggest the simultaneous operation of more than one benefit. These predictions were tested for coexisting Panulirus guttatus (a reef-obligate) and Panulirus argus (a temporary reef-dweller) using data collected during 11 surveys on fixed sites over a coral reef in Mexico. P. guttatus greatly outnumbered P. argus, but P. argus showed a greater tendency to aggregate. All three benefits of den sharing operated for the more social P. argus, with “group defense” being of the most benefit for larger individuals, and the “guide” and “dilution” effects for smaller individuals recently immigrating into the reef habitat and sharing dens with larger conspecifics. P. guttatus did not display “group defense” and its aggregations appeared to be modulated by the interplay between attraction and aggressive behaviors. This species relied more on solitary crypticity, especially at larger sizes, but appeared to benefit from a “guide effect” at high conspecific densities. In experimental tanks, each species tended to aggregate when tested separately, but when tested jointly, aggregation among P. guttatus was significantly reduced. The experimental results reflect the differential patterns of aggregation between the fore-reef, where P. guttatus dominated, and the back-reef, where coexistence of both species was greater.     

Comparative androecium morphogenesis ofSicyos angulatus andSechium edule (Cucurbitaceae)

“Androecium” ofSicyos angulatus andSechium edule is unique in having a solid central column below a head portion with thecae. Its morphogenesis was examined for the two species. The developmental course is composed of two distinct successive phases; (1) establishment of stamen primordia and (2) uplift of the stamen primordia caused by development of a central column below them. In the first phase, there is a difference between the two species; inSicyos angulatus, two bithecal and one monothecal stamen primordia are formed by congenital fusion among preformed five protrsions, whilst inSechium edule, three or four monothecal stamen primordia are formed without fusion. The central column is later produced by intercalary growth in a region below the stamen primordia in both species. Concomitant with central column development, the center of the floral primordium, which was surrounded by the early formed stamen primordia, is raised up to the top of the central column. The central column could be interpreted as a receptacular column, and not as congenitally fused stamen filaments, as currently believed. The “androecium” of the both species is considered an androecium complex, which consists of the stamens and a receptacular column.     

Preliminary study of taxonomy ofAzotobacter andAzomonas by using rocket line immunoelectrophoresis

Rocket line immunoelectrophoresis was used to study the taxonomy ofAzotobacter andAzomonas assessed by reaction with antiserum to the AVO₂ strain ofAzotobacter. Forty-five cultures, comprising seventeen species in five genera, showed that antigen “β”, like high-titer somatic agglutination, was restricted to all 11 strains ofAzotobacter vinelandii and to one strain which has been namedAzotobacter macrocytogenes (10EM). A thermoresistant antigen (“γ”) was found to be shared by all strains and species ofAzotobacter andAzomonas investigated.     

Interspecific competition and coexistence of the two chrysomelids,Gastrophysa atrocyanea motschulsky andGalerucella vittaticollis baly (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), under limited food resource conditions

Field experiments were conducted in order to investigate the mode of exploitation of food resources and the mechanism of coexistence of mixed larval populations of the two chrysomelids,Gastrophysa atrocyanea andGalerucella vittaticollis, under limited food resource conditions. The larval survival rates seemed high enough to assure coexistence when hatchlings of the two species were released in 1∶1 and 1∶3 ratios on a host plant. However, the survival rate became almost nil for both species when a 3∶1 ratio was employed, suggesting asymmetrical interspecific competition. Wasted food consumption was much higher inG. atrocyanea larvae. The population ofG. atrocyanea seemed to be regulated more by intraspecific competition, while on the other hand, the population ofG. vittaticollis was considered to be more likely affected by the interspecific competition withG. atrocyanea, depending on the initial ratio and density of the two species.     

Development of sexual and protective behavior of female crickets <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus argentinus</Emphasis> Sauss. at the prereproductive and reproductive periods of imaginal ontogenesis

Data are presented about the development of reproductive and defense behavior of noncopulated female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. in the beginning of the imaginal ontogeny. The character of interaction of females with “virtual” males (the “supporting ball” method-“trackball”) was studied. The forms of female motor reactions to models of intraspecies male sound signals-the calling and aggressive songs-are described and analyzed. The character of the development of female acoustic behavior is described as judged by change in the forms of motor reactions in the course of the imaginal ontogeny. It is shown that immediately after the imaginal molt the reproductive behavior is not formed yet but it matures gradually within a few days. At the early stages of the imaginal ontogeny passive defense behavior is found to be most clearly expressed.     

Assessment of aphid colonies by hoverflies. II pea aphids and 3 syrphid species;Betasyrphus serarius (Wiedemann),Metasyrphus frequens Matsumura andSyrphus vitripennis (Meigen) (Diptera: Syrphidae)

In the aphidophagous syrphid species,Betasyrphus serarius (Wiedemann),Metasyrphus frequens Matsumura andSyrphus vitripennis (Meigen), females in search of oviposition sites assess the qualitative and quantitative value of pea aphid colonies for securing the successful development of their offspring. They select, as their oviposition sites, young and “promising” aphid colonies consisting of nymphs and/or adult aphids including few winged adults. They neglect large, older colonies of 4th-instar nymphs and/or winged adult aphids. The 3 syrphid species adopt “buy-futures” ovipositional tactic as doesEpisyrphus balteatus (de Geer), although some tinge of “spot-transaction” is noticed inM. frequens andS. vitripennis.     

Ultrastructure and functional morphology of the female reproductive organs inProtodrilus (Polychaeta,Annelida)

The morphology and function of the female reproductive organs in 6Protodrilus species are investigated by light- and transmission electron microscopy. Possible ways in which spermatozoa may enter the female coelom after leaving the spermatophore are discussed for species with and without special female reception organs. Only femaleP. rubropharyngeus andP. flavocapitatus have “dorsal organs” for spermatophore reception. The structure and function of these organs are described, as well as those of the oviduct found in 3 of the species investigated. The possible phylogenetic origin of gonoducts and different modes of oviposition within the genus are discussed. Finally, the high taxonomic significance of female traits such as dorsal organs, oviducts, cocoon glands and lateral ciliary rows in this genus is stressed.     

Influence of glucose concentration on the physiology and lipid composition of some yeasts

The fatty acid contents of the “Crabtree-positive” yeastsSaccharomyces cerevisiae, S. carlsbergensis andS. delbrueckii decreased with increasing concentrations of glucose in the medium. These lower values were due to a lower content of sterol esters and phosphatides inS. cerevisiae, and of sterol esters inS. carlsbergensis. In contrast the fatty acid contents of the Crabtree-negativeS. fragilis, Schwanniomyces occidentalis andCandida utilis increased with increasing concentrations of glucose and inCandida utilis this was due almost entirely to a higher content of triglycerides. This work was supported in part by grant B/SR/5780 from the Science Research Council. We are grateful to the Brewer's Society for a Research Scholarship to Mr. B. Johnson. We thank Mr. A. Bradley for competent technical assistance.     

Social relations between adult males and females of Japanese monkeys in the arashiyama B troop

Some dyads of Japanese monkey adult males and females show remarkable spatial proximity and frequent exchanges of social behaviors. It is suggested that some kind of “affinity” exists between them. Females obtain much unilateral benefit from “proximity effects”; even lowranking females can dominate high-ranking females as long as they stay nearby their “affinitive” males. Males acquire female followers in return. Mating relations and female mother-daughter relations play important roles in forming new “affinitive relations.” Once monkeys have formed “affinitive relations,” however, they seldom mate with each other, as if they were kin-related. Therefore, the acquisition of female followers appears inconsistent with a male's strategy for reproducing many genes in the next generation. This study was financed partly by the Cooperative Research Fund of the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University. The outline of this paper has already been published inTakahata (1980b).     

Specific proteins in stem meristems during transition to flowering

Immunodiffusion tests were used for studying protein composition of apical buds ofRudbeckia bicolor andPerilla nankinensis during their transition from vegetative to reproductive state under inductive photoperiodic conditions or GA₃ treatment. In both species the induced buds differ from the vegetative ones in the presence of specific proteins (P): P1, P2, P3 appear inRudbeckia apical buds 2, 8, 16 d after the start of inductive treatment; P4 appears inPerilla apical buds 6 d after inductive treatment. P1, P2, P4 are revealed in induced buds in the early period of apex development when morphogenetic changes are not yet present. The similarity between antigenic spectra of induced buds and of those treated by GA₃ appears only inRudbeckia. These observations support the hypothesis of a change in gene expression at floral evocation. Presented at the International Symposium “Plant Growth Regulators” held on June 18–22, 1984 at Liblice, Czechoslovakia.     

Diet of the Oligocene anthropoidsAegyptopithecus andApidium

Diets of the Oligocene anthropoidsAegyptopithecus zeuxis andApidium phiomense are inferred from measurements of the anterior and posterior dentition of these species. Ideas are presented which can be checked as the hypodigms expand. Comparisons with extant anthropoids demonstrate a probably frugivorous diet forA. zeuxis, while the diet ofA. phiomense was not characterized by a high degree of frugivory requiring extensive incisal preparation of food. Additional inferences about the diet ofA. phiomense might be gleaned from future examination of incisor morphology, implantation and occlusion. Even when allowance is made for the presence of P2 inA. phiomense, the dietary position of this species with respect to extant anthropoids is equivocal, and it is possible that the normal anthropoid relationship between anterior and posterior dentitions, with a small incisor span correlating with a great amount of mastication, had yet to be developed. This report is based in part on an invited paper “Function in primate masticatory musculature as demonstrated by muscle weights” delivered at the symposium “The Behavioral and Morphological Adaptations to Diet Among Primates,” 46th Annual Meeting, American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Seattle, Washington, April 13–16, 1977.     

Comparative development of the spermatozoids of cycads andGinkgo biloba

Cycads andGinkgo biloba are the only extant seed plants that produce flagellated male gametes. Superficially, the cells of both are similar in structure and function. In both the motile organelles arise from multicentriolar bodies, the blepharoplasts, and, in both forms, these give rise to a complex fibrous band, the multilayered structure (MLS), which bears numerous flagella. Generally speaking, these structures are much alike in cycads andGinkgo. However, there are marked differences in details of their development, particularly in the presence of a “nucellar beak” inGinkgo.     

Distribution and habitat preferences of two grapsid crab species in Mar Chiquita Lagoon (Province of Buenos Aires,Argentina)

Cyrtograpsus angulatus andChasmagnathus granulata (Grapsidae) are the two dominant decapod crustacean species in the outer parts of Mar Chiquita Lagoon, the southernmost in a series of coastal lagoons that occur along the temperate Atlantic coasts of South America. Distribution and habitat preferences (water and sediment type) in these crab species were studied in late spring. There is evidence of ontogenetic changes in habitat selection of both species. Recruitment ofC. angulatus takes place mainly in crevices of tube-building polychaete (Ficopomatus enigmaticus) “reefs” and, to a lesser extent, also in other protected microhabitats (under stones). In the latter, mostly somewhat larger juveniles were found, suggesting that these are used as a refuge for growing individuals. Adults are most frequently found on unprotected muddy and sandy beaches.C. angulatus was found in all parts of Mar Chiquita Lagoon, including freshwater, brackish, and marine habitats.C. granulata, in contrast, was restricted to the lower parts of the lagoon, where brackish water predominates and freshwater or marine conditions occur only exceptionally. It showed highest population density on “dry mud” flats and inSpartina densiflora grassland, where it can build stable burrows and where high contents of organic matter occur in the sediment. Such habitats are characterized by mixed populations of juveniles (including newly settled recruits) and adults, males and females (including a high percentage of ovigerous). Unstable “wet mud” as well as stony sand were found to be inhabited by chiefly adult populations, with only few ovigerous females. In “dry mud” flats, the proportion of males increased vertically with increasing level in the intertidal zone, showing a significantly increasing trend also in their average body size. These observations may be explained by higher resistance of males, in particular of large individuals, to desiccation, salinity, and temperature stress occurring in the upper intertidal. However, an opposite, or no such, tendency was found in the distribution of ovigerous and non-ovigerous females, respectively. With increasing distance from the water edge, salinity increased and pH decreased significantly inC. granulata burrows, whereas temperature showed no consistent tendency within the intertidal gradient. A highly significant linear relationship (r=−0.794; P<0.001) between salinity and pH in water from crab burrows is described. This regression line is significantly different from one that had been observed in water from the lagoon, indicating consistently lower pH values at any salinity level in burrow water. This is interpreted as a result of crab and/or microbial respiration.     

Application of suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) to cloning differentially expressed cDNA inDunaliella salina (chlorophyta) under hyperosmotic shock

Two subtracted cDNA libraries ofDunaliella salina (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) under different hyperosmotic shock were constructed using the suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) method. The mRNA isolated from algae grown without stress was used as a “driver”, and the mRNAs isolated from algae 16 h (short-term treatment) or 7 d (long-term treatment) after salt stress were used as “testers”. The differentially expressed cDNA fragments inD. salina under salt stress were identified by screening these 2 libraries. Two cDNA fragments,D27 andD114, were identified from clones pL27 and pL114 after the long-term treatment. Three cDNA fragments,D21, D39, andD88, were identified from clones pSh21, pSh39, and pSh88 after the short-term treatment. The homology analysis revealed that D27 was highly similar (91%) to the subunit V of PS I reaction center inChlamydomonas reinhardtii. D21 was similar to fructose-1,6-diphosphate aldolase (78.4%). After searching GenBank with the sequences ofD39, D88, andD114, no similar sequences were found. Northern analysis revealed that the expression levels of all 5 cDNAs were increased significantly after salt stress. This means that SSH can be used in cloning differentially expressed cDNAs inD. salina under salt stress. The expression ofD27, D21, andD88 wasde novo induced by salt stress, and the expression ofD114 andD39 was increased from a relatively lower level; this indicates that all 5 cDNAs might exert an influence on the alga under hyperosmotic shock.     

Stereotyped sequence of mating behavior in the Far Eastern catfish, Silurus asotus, from Lake Biwa

 Mating behavior of the Far Eastern catfish, Silurus asotus (Siluriformes: Siluridae), was observed in a ricefield system facing the shore of Lake Biwa in mid-May to early June in 1990–1997. A set behavioral sequence similar to those of two other silurid fishes, S. biwaensis and S. lithophilus, both endemic to the Lake Biwa system, was observed: “chasing,”“clinging,”“enfolding” while “squeezing” by the male, and “circling” by the spawning pair. This form of mating behavior is quite different from that of S. asotus reported from the Ooi River system in Kyoto Prefecture, which mainly spawns in running water in ditches. Received: April 10, 2001 / Revised: November 5, 2001 / Accetped: November 20, 2001