Turning science into policy: challenges and experiences from the science-policy interface

This paper discusses key issues in the science-policy interface. It stresses the importance of linking the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity to the Millennium Development Goals and to issues of immediate concern to policy-makers such as the economy, security and human health. It briefly discusses the process of decision-making and how the scientific and policy communities have successfully worked together on global environmental issues such as stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change, and the critical role of international assessments in providing the scientific basis for informed policy at the national and international level. The paper also discusses the drivers of global environmental change, the importance of constructing plausible futures, indicators of change, the biodiversity 2010 target and how environmental issues such as loss of biodiversity, stratospheric ozone depletion, land degradation, water pollution and climate change cannot be addressed in isolation because they are strongly interconnected and there are synergies and trade-offs among the policies, practices and technologies that are used to address these issues individually.     

“Green Fluff”? The Role of Corporate Sustainability Initiatives in Effective Climate Policy: Comment on “Science‐Based Carbon Targets for the Corporate World: The Ultimate Sustainability Commitment,or a Costly Distraction?”

The commentary by Schendler and Trexler (2015) strikes us as an intriguing paradox. Schendler and Trexler see responses to the threat of global climate change beginning to move forward in the corporate world, but they fear these corporate initiatives will be a distraction from what is ultimately required. They emphasize the need for “greater government intervention.” An earlier text by Schendler and Toffel (2013) notes, and we agree, that “we're failing to deal with the problem at anywhere near sufficient scale.” But we feel that the article by Schendler and Trexler does not adequately acknowledge the importance of these corporate efforts as elements of initiation and leadership. Schendler and Trexler express the impatience that many of us feel regarding the continued failure of political progress at the national and international levels. But they do not embrace the thoughts attributed to the sixth century B.C. Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu: “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” They fail to acknowledge that, in democratic governments, there is the need for grass‐roots support in order to develop and implement effective policy. Rather than distractions, individual and corporate efforts are generally necessary prerequisites for implementation of and receptiveness to government action. We agree that society is not dealing with climate change at anything approaching the needed scale and that, ultimately, a meaningful government and international response to climate change is required. The challenge is finding the way forward to achieve this outcome. In a first‐best scenario, the global community would simply negotiate an effective international climate agreement. For more than 35 years, individual countries have collaborated to pursue this first‐best scenario, starting with the first World Climate Conference in 1979 and continuing with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. But this “top‐down” approach has yielded little success and even less hope, with global carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions increasing by more than 50% since adoption of the UNFCCC in 1992. While countries agree on the need for an international agreement, “there is disagreement on almost every aspect of the climate change problem. Countries approach the problem in different stages of development and from different development paths, and thus with different perspectives” (Cherry et al. 2014, 23).     

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting agricultural management for climate change in developing countries: providing the basis for action

Agriculture in developing countries has attracted increasing attention in international negotiations within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for both adaptation to climate change and greenhouse gas mitigation. However, there is limited understanding about potential complementarity between management practices that promote adaptation and mitigation, and limited basis to account for greenhouse gas emission reductions in this sector. The good news is that the global research community could provide the support needed to address these issues through further research linking adaptation and mitigation. In addition, a small shift in strategy by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and ongoing assistance from agricultural organizations could produce a framework to move the research and development from concept to reality. In turn, significant progress is possible in the near term providing the basis for UNFCCC negotiations to move beyond discussion to action for the agricultural sector in developing countries.     

Understanding and Managing the Risks to Health and Environment from Global Atmospheric Change: A Synthesis

The global atmosphere is changing. Anthropogenic activities are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases and releasing synthetic compounds that deplete stratospheric ozone and increase UV-B radiation. Changes of temperature in the Northern Hemisphere during the past century strongly suggest that we are now in a period of rapid global warming relative to the past millennium. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases are absorbing outgoing infrared radiation in the lower atmosphere, warming the troposphere and cooling the lower stratosphere. Research is beginning to indicate that losses of stratospheric ozone and increases of greenhouse gases are interdependent. Increased greenhouse gases have been implicated in the observed strengthening of stratospheric wind vortices around both poles, in turn setting the stage for further depletion of ozone and increases in UV-B radiation. Although the uncertainties are still large enough to make it difficult to assess health and ecological risks, decisions must be made. Research on indicators of risks to human health and the environment can help reduce the uncertainties in these risks and shorten the time between recognizing the risks of atmospheric change and taking concrete mitigative and adaptive actions.     

Changes in tropospheric composition and air quality due to stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change.

It is well-understood that reductions in air quality play a significant role in both environmental and human health. Interactions between ozone depletion and global climate change will significantly alter atmospheric chemistry which, in turn, will cause changes in concentrations of natural and human-made gases and aerosols. Models predict that tropospheric ozone near the surface will increase globally by up to 10 to 30 ppbv (33 to 100% increase) during the period 2000 to 2100. With the increase in the amount of the stratospheric ozone, increased transport from the stratosphere to the troposphere will result in different responses in polluted and unpolluted areas. In contrast, global changes in tropospheric hydroxyl radical (OH) are not predicted to be large, except where influenced by the presence of oxidizable organic matter, such as from large-scale forest fires. Recent measurements in a relatively clean location over 5 years showed that OH concentrations can be predicted by the intensity of solar ultraviolet radiation. If this relationship is confirmed by further observations, this approach could be used to simplify assessments of air quality. Analysis of surface-level ozone observations in Antarctica suggests that there has been a significant change in the chemistry of the boundary layer of the atmosphere in this region as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion. The oxidation potential of the Antarctic boundary layer is estimated to be greater now than before the development of the ozone hole. Recent modeling studies have suggested that iodine and iodine-containing substances from natural sources, such as the ocean, may increase stratospheric ozone depletion significantly in polar regions during spring. Given the uncertainty of the fate of iodine in the stratosphere, the results may also be relevant for stratospheric ozone depletion and measurements of the influence of these substances on ozone depletion should be considered in the future. In agreement with known usage and atmospheric loss processes, tropospheric concentrations of HFC-134a, the main human-made source of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), is increasing rapidly. As HFC-134a is a potent greenhouse gas, this increasing concentration has implications for climate change. However, the risks to humans and the environment from substances, such as TFA, produced by atmospheric degradation of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are considered minimal. Perfluoropolyethers, commonly used as industrial heat transfer fluids and proposed as chlorohydrofluorocarbon (CHFC) substitutes, show great stability to chemical degradation in the atmosphere. These substances have been suggested as substitutes for CHFCs but, as they are very persistent in the atmosphere, they may be important contributors to global warming. It is not known whether these substances will contribute significantly to global warming and its interaction with ozone depletion but they should be considered for further evaluation.     

《联合国气候变化框架公约》与《生物多样性公约》的关系

气候变化和生物多样性损失是人类面临的两个严峻的全球性环境挑战, 有关应对气候变化和生物多样性保护国际公约的协作在全球范围内也越来越受重视。本文系统梳理了《联合国气候变化框架公约》下保护生物多样性和《生物多样性公约》下应对气候变化的发展脉络, 探讨了两公约下各缔约方针对相关议题的谈判立场及未来走向, 并对两公约进行了综合评价。《联合国气候变化框架公约》下涉及生物多样性保护的焦点议题主要有土地利用、土地利用变化和林业(Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, LULUCF)、减少毁林和森林退化的碳排放机制(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, REDD)及损失和损害国际机制, 《生物多样性公约》下涉及应对气候变化的焦点议题主要有协同增效、减少毁林和森林退化的碳排放机制(REDD)和地球工程及相关问题。本文最后还就我国应对气候变化和生物多样性国际谈判及国内履约提出了建议: (1)整合谈判团队力量, 促进两公约协同增效; (2)做好交叉议题的研判和谈判预案, 主动引领谈判进程; (3)为《联合国气候变化框架公约》谈判提供损失和损害风险评估数据; (4)加强《生物多样性公约》下地球工程议题的科学研究与国际交流。     

Tracking changes in the land use,management and drainage status of organic soils as indicators of the effectiveness of mitigation strategies for climate change

The tracking of land use since 1990 presents a major challenge in greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol because there is often limited availability of data, especially for the base year of 1990. There is even less land management and soil moisture data, which are needed to track climate change mitigation activities since soil moisture is one of the main drivers of GHG emissions of organic soils. Information is also needed for the reporting of land-based activities such as grazing land management or wetland drainage and rewetting of organic soils. Different spatial and thematic resolutions of land-use data produce inconsistent time series with a strong overestimation of land-use change (LUC) if not adequately accounted for. Our aim was to create a consistent time series of land use since 1990 that is in line with GHG reporting under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol by combining official cadastral data with colour-infrared aerial photography used for biodiversity monitoring in six federal states in northern and eastern Germany. We developed a generic hierarchical classification by land use, management and drainage status, and a translation key for data harmonisation into a consistent time series. This time series enabled the quantification of LUC on organic soils between 1992 and 2013 in a spatially explicit manner. Furthermore we used this time series to develop indicators for changes in land management and drainage to evaluate the success of protection statuses on peatland restoration.The study area encompassed one million hectares, half of which had some type of legal nature protection status. Areas with no protection status tended to become more intensively farmed and drier, while highly protected areas (e.g. Natura 2000) showed the opposite trend. Land-use trends also differed greatly between federal states. In Schleswig-Holstein organic soils tended to become drier during the study period, while in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania they tended to become wetter overall. The trends and differences in LUC between federal states were linked to German reunification, changes in the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Germany's Renewable Energy Act (EEG). A large-scale peatland protection programme also had major impact.In conclusion, our study demonstrates how data derived for biodiversity monitoring and other highly detailed land-use data can be used to track changes in land use, management and drainage status in accordance with the reporting requirements under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.     

30% land conservation and climate action reduces tropical extinction risk by more than 50%

Limiting climate change to less than 2°C is the focus of international policy under the climate convention (UNFCCC), and is essential to preventing extinctions, a focus of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The post-2020 biodiversity framework drafted by the CBD proposes conserving 30% of both land and oceans by 2030. However, the combined impact on extinction risk of species from limiting climate change and increasing the extent of protected and conserved areas has not been assessed. Here we create conservation spatial plans to minimize extinction risk in the tropics using data on 289 219 species and modeling two future greenhouse gas concentration pathways (RCP2.6 and 8.5) while varying the extent of terrestrial protected land and conserved areas from <17% to 50%. We find that limiting climate change to 2°C and conserving 30% of terrestrial area could more than halve aggregate extinction risk compared with uncontrolled climate change and no increase in conserved area.     

《粮食和农业植物遗传资源国际条约》与《名古屋议定书》比较研究

《粮食和农业植物遗传资源国际条约》（简称《条约》）与《生物多样性公约关于遗传资源获取和公平公正地分享由遗传资源利用产生惠益的名古屋议定书》（简称《议定书》）是遗传资源获取和惠益分享领域两个重要的国际法律文书,建立了各自的获取和惠益分享机制。由于担忧两个法律文书之间存在监管重叠,以及对我国遗传资源的保护和利用现状不够了解,我国均未批准加入。本文从目标、范围、获取和惠益分享框架和模式及受益者等4四个方面比较了《条约》和《议定书》的差异,结合我国遗传资源的保护和利用现状,就是否加入《条约》与《议定书》提出了以下建议：（1）两个国际法律文书均应加入;（2）在履行《条约》时,需要加强作物野生近缘种的保护,防止资源流失;（3）在履行《议定书》时,监测和评估我国遗传资源应用能力,并适时提出修订《议定书》条款的要求。     

Global increases in ultraviolet B radiation: potential impacts on amphibian development and metamorphosis

Levels of ultraviolet B radiation (UVBR) reaching the Earth's surface have increased since the 1970s as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion caused by the emission of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) such as chlorofluorocarbons. Despite international agreements to phase out harmful ODSs, these substances are persistent, and even under the most optimistic scenarios, stratospheric ozone levels will not return to pre-1980 levels for several decades. Furthermore, climate change may enhance chemical stratospheric ozone depletion. Global phenomena such as climate change, ozone depletion, and acidification of aquatic ecosystems interact to modify dissolved organic carbon levels in aquatic systems, thereby increasing the penetration of UVBR. Since amphibians inhabit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats and have unshelled eggs and permeable skin, they are vulnerable to changes in environmental conditions and habitat quality. Increased exposure of amphibians to UVBR can produce lethal and sublethal effects, especially in individuals that do not possess adequate defense mechanisms to protect themselves. In this article, we discuss worldwide increases in UVBR and the adverse effects of UVBR exposure on amphibians. Specifically, studies on the effects of UVBR on amphibian development and metamorphosis are summarized, and possible mechanisms of thyroid system disruption caused by UVBR exposure are considered.     

Questions and answers about the effects of the depletion of the ozone layer on humans and the environment.

The ozone molecule contains three atoms of oxygen and is mainly formed by the action of the ultraviolet rays of the sun on the diatomic oxygen molecules in the upper part of the Earth's atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Atmospheric pollution near the Earth's surface can form localized areas of ozone. The stratospheric ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In the mid 1970s it was discovered that some manmade products destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere. This destruction can result in damage to ecosystems and to materials such as plastics. It may cause an increase in human diseases such as skin cancers and cataracts. The discovery of the role of the synthetic ozone-depleting chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) stimulated increased research and monitoring in this field. Computer models predicted a disaster if no action was taken to protect the ozone layer. Based on this research and monitoring, the nations of the world took action in 1985 with the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer followed by the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987. The Convention and Protocol were amended and adjusted several times as new knowledge was obtained. The Meetings of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol appointed three Assessment Panels to review the progress in scientific knowledge on their behalf. These panels are the Scientific Assessment Panel, the Technological and Economic Assessment Panel and the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel. Each panel covers a designated area and there is a natural level of overlap. The main reports of the Panels are published every four years as required by the Meeting of the Parties. All the reports have an executive summary that is distributed more widely than the main report itself. It became customary to add a set of questions and answers--mainly for non-expert readers--to the executive summaries. This document contains the questions and answers prepared by experts who comprise the Environmental Assessment Panel. It is based mainly on the 2006 report of the Panel but also contains information from previous assessments. Readers who need detailed information on any question should consult the full reports for a more complete scientific discussion. This set of questions refers mainly to the environmental effects of ozone depletion and climate change. The report of the Scientific Assessment Panel contains questions and answers related to the other scientific issues addressed by that Panel. All these reports can be found on the UNEP website (http://ozone.unep.org).     

Development of damage function for stratospheric ozone layer depletion

The purpose of our study was to develop damage functions due to ozone layer depletion, that related the emission of ozone depleting substances (ODS) to the damage of category endpoints. The ozone layer depletion causes many types of damage such as skin cancer, cataract, adverse effect to crop and plant growth. We assessed the increase of skin cancer incidence risk. The damage function have been developed with connecting the main processes on ozone depletion, emission of ODS, increase of tropospheric ODS, increase of stratospheric ODS, change of total ozone, change of B region ultra-violet (UV-B) at the surface, and the increase of skin cancer incidence. As the result, we could introduce damage functions of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer incidence for 13 species of ODSs and damage factors based on the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). We also compared the DALYs value with the damage factors of Eco-indicator 99 (egalitarian and hierarchic value), and it was found that our result was several ten times as small except methyl bromide. Furthermore, a case study for refrigerator was performed and it showed that shifting to less ozone depleting substances reduced the risk of skin cancer incidence to one-fourteenth in DALYs.     

湿地甲烷排放研究若干问题的探讨

甲烷是大气中最重要的温室气体之一,天然湿地是全球目前已知的最大排放源,每年向大气中排放的CH4约占全球CH4排放量的21％。本文就天然湿地甲烷排放研究的若干问题,包括研究方法、影响因素以及排放通量的时空变异性进行了探讨,最后对有关湿地甲烷排放模型进行了简单介绍,并对今后的研究方向提出了几点建议。     

The rights of children: public policy statement

Children, who are vulnerable at the start of existence, are a concern shared by nations and cultures. The importance of children's conditions has led 192 out of 194 countries to ratify the UN General Assembly's Convention on the Rights of the Child. The United States has not yet ratified the convention, despite having exercised influence on the drafting of its provisions. Given the global importance of nurturing and protecting children, the Society for Medical Anthropology strongly and emphatically supports that the convention be ratified, and that the U.S. government submit the convention for approval by the U.S. Senate.     

Changes in biologically-active ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface.

The Montreal Protocol is working. Concentrations of major ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere are now decreasing, and the decline in total column amounts seen in the 1980s and 1990s at mid-latitudes has not continued. In polar regions, there is much greater natural variability. Each spring, large ozone holes continue to occur in Antarctica and less severe regions of depleted ozone continue to occur in the Arctic. There is evidence that some of these changes are driven by changes in atmospheric circulation rather than being solely attributable to reductions in ozone-depleting substances, which may indicate a linkage to climate change. Global ozone is still lower than in the 1970s and a return to that state is not expected for several decades. As changes in ozone impinge directly on UV radiation, elevated UV radiation due to reduced ozone is expected to continue over that period. Long-term changes in UV-B due to ozone depletion are difficult to verify through direct measurement, but there is strong evidence that UV-B irradiance increased over the period of ozone depletion. At unpolluted sites in the southern hemisphere, there is some evidence that UV-B irradiance has diminished since the late 1990s. The availability and temporal extent of UV data have improved, and we are now able to evaluate the changes in recent times compared with those estimated since the late 1920s, when ozone measurements first became available. The increases in UV-B irradiance over the latter part of the 20th century have been larger than the natural variability. There is increased evidence that aerosols have a larger effect on surface UV-B radiation than previously thought. At some sites in the Northern Hemisphere, UV-B irradiance may continue to increase because of continuing reductions in aerosol extinctions since the 1990s. Interactions between ozone depletion and climate change are complex and can be mediated through changes in chemistry, radiation, and atmospheric circulation patterns. The changes can be in both directions: ozone changes can affect climate, and climate change can affect ozone. The observational evidence suggests that stratospheric ozone (and therefore UV-B) has responded relatively quickly to changes in ozone-depleting substances, implying that climate interactions have not delayed this process. Model calculations predict that at mid-latitudes a return of ozone to pre-1980 levels is expected by the mid 21st century. However, it may take a decade or two longer in polar regions. Climate change can also affect UV radiation through changes in cloudiness and albedo, without involving ozone and since temperature changes over the 21st century are likely to be about 5 times greater than in the past century. This is likely to have significant effects on future cloud, aerosol and surface reflectivity. Consequently, unless strong mitigation measures are undertaken with respect to climate change, profound effects on the biosphere and on the solar UV radiation received at the Earth's surface can be anticipated. The future remains uncertain. Ozone is expected to increase slowly over the decades ahead, but it is not known whether ozone will return to higher levels, or lower levels, than those present prior to the onset of ozone depletion in the 1970s. There is even greater uncertainty about future UV radiation, since it will be additionally influenced by changes in aerosols and clouds.     

United States policy on international straits

Abstract

United States policy on international straits is dictated by the vital importance to U.S. national security interests of unimpeded commercial and military transit through, over, and under sea lines of communication. Although perceived flaws in the deep seabed mining regime of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention precluded U.S. signature or ratification of that document, the United States considers that the navigational articles of the convention reflect customary international law. Accordingly, U.S. policy on international straits is premised on recognition of and respect for the balance of interests set forth in the navigational articles of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention.     

<卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书>及其对转基因农产品国际贸易和生物技术发展的影响与对策

《生物多样性公约》缔约国,为了现代生物技术生产的活性转基因生物（ＬＭＯ）的安全转移和使用,保护人类健康和生物多样性,经过５年的艰苦谈判,于２０００年初通过了《卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书》,成为第一部有关ＬＭＯ的国际法。该《议定书》确认了预先防范原则,允许缔约方禁止或限制ＬＭＯ进境,并要求含有ＬＭＯ的货物附有标签。作者预测了《议定书》对转基因农产品国际贸易和生物技术发展的影响,并对我国应采取的对策提出了     

The incentive gap: LULUCF and the Kyoto mechanism before and after Durban

To‐date, forest resource‐based carbon accounting in land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Kyoto Protocol (KP), European Union (EU) and national level emission reduction schemes considers only a fraction of its potential and fails to adequately mobilize the LULUCF sector for the successful stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations. Recent modifications at the 2011 COP17 meetings in Durban have partially addressed this basic problem, but leave room for improvement. The presence of an Incentive Gap (IG) continues to justify reform of the LULUCF carbon accounting framework. Frequently neglected in the climate change mitigation and adaptation literature, carbon accounting practices ultimately define the nuts and bolts of what counts and which resources (forest, forest‐based or other) are favored and utilized. For Annex I countries in the Kyoto Mechanism, the Incentive Gap under forest management (FM) is significantly large: some 75% or more of potential forestry‐based carbon sequestration is not effectively incentivized or mobilized for climate change mitigation and adaptation (Ellison et al. 2011a). In this paper, we expand our analysis of the Incentive Gap to incorporate the changes agreed in Durban and encompass both a wider set of countries and a larger set of omitted carbon pools. For Annex I countries, based on the first 2 years of experience in the first Commitment Period (CP1) we estimate the IG in FM at approximately 88%. Though significantly reduced in CP2, the IG remains a problem. Thus our measure of missed opportunities under the Kyoto and UNFCCC framework – despite the changes in Durban – remains important. With the exception perhaps of increased energy efficiency, few sinks or sources of reduced emissions can be mobilized as effectively and efficiently as forests. Thus, we wonder at the sheer magnitude of this underutilized resource.     

《名古屋议定书》政府间委员会谈判进展回顾

2010年10月《生物多样性公约》缔约方大会第十次会议通过的《生物多样性公约关于获取遗传资源和公正和公平分享其利用所产生惠益的名古屋议定书》(简称《名古屋议定书》) , 是实现《生物多样性公约》确保公平公正地分享因利用遗传资源而产生惠益目标的里程碑式文件, 该议定书将会在2014年10月12日正式生效。本文回顾了《名古屋议定书》政府间委员会上对遵约机制、全球多边惠益分享机制、信息交换所、能力建设和意识提高等议题的谈判过程, 并对下一步相关工作的开展提出了建议。     

Evidence-informed policy for tackling adverse climate change effects on health: Linking regional and global assessments of science to catalyse action

Robin Fears and co-authors discuss evidence-informed regional and global policy responses to health impacts of climate change.

Summary points

• Effective policy making depends on synthesising and improving the use of existing robust scientific evidence, tackling misinformation, and identifying knowledge gaps to be filled by new research.
• A global project organised by the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) is bringing together evidence from Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Europe to evaluate climate change effects on health and to assess policy priorities for adaptation and mitigation solutions. Project design encouraged inclusivity in assessing research from across disciplines and from diverse geographical and socioeconomic contexts encompassing issues for vulnerable groups (including Indigenous Peoples) and integrating outputs at national, regional, and global levels.
• Coordinated policy development approaches across sectors and regions and integration at national–regional–global levels are essential to understand trade-offs, avoid inadvertent consequences, and capitalise on potential synergies for multiple benefits for health, equity, and environment.
• National priorities must include integrating health actions into national climate adaptation plans and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Regional policy action is important to address cross-boundary issues and to build critical mass for quantifying and implementing solutions.
• A focus on human health can catalyse the strengthening of international coherence and commitment to tackling shared climate change challenges. Health must be prioritised in current global policy initiatives, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) Conference of the Parties 26 (COP26), UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Conference of the Parties 15 (COP15), and the UN Food Systems Summit. The scientific and health communities have a key role to help lead efforts by engaging at the science–policy interfaces to address barriers to action.