Evaluating Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Plume Behavior Using Historical Case Population Analyses

A nationwide survey of chlorinated volatile organic compound (CVOC) plumes was conducted across a spectrum of sites from diverse hydrogeologic environments and contaminant release scenarios. The goal was to evaluate significant trends in the data that relate plume behavior to site variables (e.g., source strength, mean groundwater velocity, reductive dehalogenation regime) through correlation and population analyses. Data from 65 sites (government facilities, dry cleaners, landfills) were analyzed, yielding 247 individual CVOC plumes by compound. Data analyses revealed several trends, notably correlations between plume length and maximum observed concentration (presumably reflecting the source term) and mean groundwater velocities. Reductive dehalogenation, indicated by daughter products and groundwater geochemistry, appears to exert a relatively subtle effect on plume length, apparent only after the contributions of source strength and groundwater velocity are factored out. CVOC properties (K_oc, Henry's Law constant) exert significant effects on variability in maximum observed concentrations between sites but hold little influence on plume length. Probabilistic plume modeling, entailing Monte Carlo simulation of an analytical solution for average plume behavior with parameter distributions derived from site data, was used to produce a synthetic plume set for comparison with field data. Modeling results exhibited good agreement with field data in terms of parameter sensitivity.     

A Quick,Onsite Test for Delineating Arsenic Contaminant Plumes in Soil

Dipping vats were used routinely in the southeastern U.S. in the early 1900s to eradicate the cattle fever tick. The legacy is many dip vat sites with arsenic (As)-contaminated soil and ground water. Assessing the extent of these As plumes can be time consuming and expensive. We describe a quicker and less expensive, onsite test for soil As. It is a modification of a commercially available test designed for As in water, taking about 10?min to complete, allowing large plume areas to be delineated in a single day. An As contaminant plume in Alachua County, FL, was delineated using the quick test. Soil samples taken from a large grid encompassing the plume were analyzed in the laboratory for As to confirm the results obtained with the quick test. The comparison showed that the quick test very accurately delineated the outer boundary of the plume as well as zones of higher As concentration within the plume.     

Effects of experience on parasitoid movement in odour plumes

Abstract. Insects commonly improve the effectiveness with which they locate biotic resources through learning, but the mechanism by which experience exerts its effects has rarely been studied in detail. The effect of oviposition experience on upwind movement of the eucoilid parasitoid, Leptopilina heterotoma (Thomson) (Hym.: Eucoilidae), in odour plumes of host microhabitats, was quantified with the use of a Kramer-type locomotion compensator. A 2h exposure to host Drosophila melanogaster larvae in either fermenting apple-yeast or decaying mushroom substrate (known to affect their preference for these odours in glasshouse and field choice experiments) had a number of effects on movement in plumes of each substrate. Females experienced with a particular substrate walked faster and straighter, made narrower turns and spent more time in upwind movement (i.e. toward the source) in a plume of odour from that substrate than in odour from an alternative substrate. Inexperienced females, by contrast, generally showed little or no significant difference in responses to alternative odours. In addition to affecting the mean values of movement parameters, experience also affected variability around those means. When walking speed or path straightness in an odour plume was increased by experience, variability among individuals was correspondingly decreased. The consequences of odour learning for microhabitat choice is discussed briefly.     

Modeling the Impact of Oxygen Reaeration on Natural Attenuation

Based on studies of leaking petroleum storage tank (LPST) sites in Texas and California, the average plume of benzene, toluene, ethylene, and xylenes (BTEX) is between 61 and 132 m (200 and 400 ft) long. Standard modeling of BTEX plumes produces plumes well in excess of observed plume lengths. The amount of oxygen carried into the plume zone with clean upgradient water often is insufficient to account for the levels of biodegradation observed in these studies. Traditional recharge of oxygen-containing water into an aquifer adds insufficient oxygen to the system and cannot account for the observed plume lengths. Research has shown that anaerobic processes can contribute to biodegradation in certain cases; however, anaerobic pathways are not included in this work. Reaeration of oxygen-depleted aquifers by diffusive transport of oxygen through the vadose zone has generally been neglected as a way to introduce oxygen into surficial aquifers. The observed plume lengths and preliminary laboratory results indicate that this source of oxygen should be accounted for in any natural attenuation model of BTEX contamination. This approach to modeling reaeration has been incorporated into the finite-element groundwater flow and contaminant transport code, FLOTRAN. Adding diffusion-driven reaeration to the modeling process produces BTEX plumes consistent with observed plume lengths.     

Challenges in Monitoring the Natural Attenuation of Spatially Variable Plumes

Monitored natural attenuation may be applied as a risk-based remediation strategy if it can be established that contaminants are or will be reduced to some acceptable level at or before a compliance point. Contaminant attenuation is often attributed to intrinsic biodegradation, which in some circumstances may occur only at the plume fringes where electron acceptors from the surrounding uncontaminated zones mix by dispersion and diffusion with the plume. However, due to the common spatial and temporal variability exhibited by many plumes, the centreline monitoring approaches advocated in many natural attenuation protocols may be unable to detect natural attenuation occurring primarily by fringe processes. Snapshot data from a multilevel sampling well transect across an MTBE plume at Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, USA, illustrate the difficulty of centreline monitoring and the challenge of providing sufficient detail to detect attenuation processes that may be occurring primarily at plume fringes. In a study of a phenols plume in Wolverhampton, UK, high-resolution multilevel wells demonstrated that the key biodegradation processes were restricted spatially to the upper fringe of the plume and were rate-limited by transverse dispersion and diffusion of electron acceptors into the plume. Thus the overall extent of biodegradation was considerably less than suggested by a plume-scale analysis of total electron acceptor and contaminant budgets. These examples indicate that more robust and cost-effective MNA assessments can be obtained using monitoring strategies that focus on the location of key biodegradation processes.     

Biodegradation processes in a laboratory-scale groundwater contaminant plume assessed by fluorescence imaging and microbial analysis

Flow reactors containing quartz sand colonized with biofilm were set up as physical model aquifers to allow degrading plumes of acetate or phenol to be formed from a point source. A noninvasive fluorescent tracer technique was combined with chemical and biological sampling in order to quantify transport and biodegradation processes. Chemical analysis of samples showed a substantial decrease in carbon concentration between the injection and outflow resulting primarily from dilution but also from biodegradation. Two-dimensional imaging of the aqueous oxygen [O2(aq)] concentration field quantified the depletion of O2(aq) within the contaminant plume and provided evidence for microbial respiration associated with biodegradation of the carbon source. Combined microbiological, chemical, and O2(aq) imaging data indicated that biodegradation was greatest at the plume fringe. DNA profiles of bacterial communities were assessed by temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, which revealed that diversity was limited and that community changes observed depended on the carbon source used. Spatial variation in activity within the plume could be quantitatively accounted for by the changes observed in active cell numbers rather than differences in community structure, the total biomass present, or the increased enzyme activity of individual cells. Numerical simulations and comparisons with the experimental data were used to test conceptual models of plume processes. Results demonstrated that plume behavior was best described by growth and decay of active biomass as a single functional group of organisms represented by active cell counts.     

Insights into Biodegradation Through Depth-Resolved Microbial Community Functional and Structural Profiling of a Crude-Oil Contaminant Plume

Small-scale geochemical gradients are a key feature of aquifer contaminant plumes, highlighting the need for functional and structural profiling of corresponding microbial communities on a similar scale. The purpose of this study was to characterize the microbial functional and structural diversity with depth across representative redox zones of a hydrocarbon plume and an adjacent wetland, at the Bemidji Oil Spill site. A combination of quantitative PCR, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, and pyrosequencing were applied to vertically sampled sediment cores. Levels of the methanogenic marker gene, methyl coenzyme-M reductase A (mcrA), increased with depth near the oil body center, but were variable with depth further downgradient. Benzoate degradation N (bzdN) hydrocarbon-degradation gene, common to facultatively anaerobic Azoarcus spp., was found at all locations, but was highest near the oil body center. Microbial community structural differences were observed across sediment cores, and bacterial classes containing known hydrocarbon degraders were found to be low in relative abundance. Depth-resolved functional and structural profiling revealed the strongest gradients in the iron-reducing zone, displaying the greatest variability with depth. This study provides important insight into biogeochemical characteristics in different regions of contaminant plumes, which will aid in improving models of contaminant fate and natural attenuation rates.     

Effect of acclimation to caging on nephrotoxic response of rats to uranium

Animal studies of the toxicity and metabolism of radionuclides and chemicals often require housing of rats in metabolism cages for excreta collection. Response of rats to toxic substances may be affected by environmental factors such as the type of cage used. Dose-response studies were conducted to assess the effects of two types of cages on the nephrotoxic response of rats to uranium from implanted refined uranium ore (yellowcake). The LD50/21 days was 6 mg of uranium ore per kilogram body weight (6 mg U/kg). The 95% confidence limit (C.L.) was 3-8 mg U/kg for rats housed in metabolism cages beginning on the day of implantation (naive rats). However, for rats housed in metabolism cages for 21 days before implantation (acclimated rats) the LD50/21 days was 360 mg U/kg (95% C.L. = 220-650 mg U/kg), which was the same value obtained for rats housed continuously in polycarbonate cages. This significant difference (P less than 0.01) in response of naive rats compared to response of acclimated rats appeared related to a significantly lower water consumption by the naive rats.     

Evaluation of Natural Attenuation of Benzene and Dichloroethanes at the KL Landfill

Natural attenuation of benzene and dichloroethanes in groundwater contaminated by leachate from the West KL Avenue landfill in Kalamazoo, Michigan, was evaluated in three phases. Existing data from the previous site investigations were used to locate a series of high-resolution vertical profile samples. By analyzing data from the discrete vertical profile samples, the rates of attenuation of benzene and dichloroethanes in the plume were forecasted. Permanent monitoring wells were installed over the depth intervals associated with high concentrations in the vertical profile sampling. These wells were monitored over time to extract independent estimates of the rates of degradation of benzene and dichloroethanes. Estimates of first-order attenuation rate constants were obtained using two methods: a method due to Buscheck and Alcantar (1995), which is based on a one-dimensional steady-state analytical solution, and the tracer correction method of Wiedemeier et al. (1996). The rates of attenuation predicted from the vertical profile sampling were found to be in good agreement with the rates obtained from the permanent monitoring well data, indicating that the long-term behavior of the contaminant plumes is consistent with the initial forecast. The results also indicated that the natural attenuation of benzene, 1,1-dichloroethane (DCA), and 1,2-DCA was statistically significant (at the 0.05 level).     

Molecular assessment on impact of uranium ore contamination in soil bacterial diversity

Impact of uranium (U) ore and soluble uranium (at pH 4.0) contamination on agricultural soil bacterial diversity was assessed by using laboratory microcosms for one year. Diversity and abundance of metabolically active bacterial populations in periodically collected microcosm’s samples were analyzed by extracting total RNA and preparation of cDNA followed by analysis of 16S rRNA gene by DGGE and real time PCR. DGGE analysis revealed prominent shift of soil bacterial population due to uranium ore contamination within 12 months while uranium ore along with soluble U completely destroyed the soil bacterial diversity within first six months. Real time PCR based analysis indicated 100–200 folds increase in 16S rRNA gene copies of total as well as individual bacterial taxa in both U ore amended and unamended soils in first six months while increase in incubation period upto 12 months showed reduction of the same only in U ore amended soil. Antagonistic effect of U ore contamination on soil bacterial diversity indicated the severe impact of U mining likely to have on nearby ecosystems. Role of U at acidic pH in destroying the diversity completely is noteworthy as it corroborated the disastrous consequence of acid mine drainage generated from U mine sites.     

Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella, Captures in Monitoring Traps as Influenced by Proximately to Competing Female-Like- vs. High-Releasing Pheromone Point Sources

This research tested the hypothesis that a codling moth male, Cydia pomonella L., selects the sex pheromone plume of highest concentration when encountering overlapping plumes of differing concentrations. A plume of normal concentration generated by a female-like lure (7 ηg/h), and a plume of high concentration generated by a polyethylene sex pheromone “rope” dispenser, Isomate-C® Plus (6,000 ηg/h), were deployed at various distances and elevations from a standard monitoring trap (Pherocon® VI delta trap) deployed in an abandoned apple orchard. Moth captures in lure-baited traps in the tree canopy were significantly inhibited when the plume from the rope was nearby. However, the concentrated plume from the rope positioned below the monitoring trap at distances of 50 cm or more did not influence moth capture significantly. When the plume from the rope was positioned at the same elevation as the lure, moth captures were reduced significantly only when the separation was 50 cm or less. Our data: 1) falsify the hypothesis that codling moth males are able to select plumes of normal pheromone concentration when exposed simultaneously to plumes of high vs. normal concentrations; 2) confirm that codling moth males favor more vs. less concentrated plumes; and 3) provide further support for competitive attraction as the disruptive mechanism for the Isomate-C® Plus.     

Biodegradation Processes in a Laboratory-Scale Groundwater Contaminant Plume Assessed by Fluorescence Imaging and Microbial Analysis

Flow reactors containing quartz sand colonized with biofilm were set up as physical model aquifers to allow degrading plumes of acetate or phenol to be formed from a point source. A noninvasive fluorescent tracer technique was combined with chemical and biological sampling in order to quantify transport and biodegradation processes. Chemical analysis of samples showed a substantial decrease in carbon concentration between the injection and outflow resulting primarily from dilution but also from biodegradation. Two-dimensional imaging of the aqueous oxygen [O₂(aq)] concentration field quantified the depletion of O₂(aq) within the contaminant plume and provided evidence for microbial respiration associated with biodegradation of the carbon source. Combined microbiological, chemical, and O₂(aq) imaging data indicated that biodegradation was greatest at the plume fringe. DNA profiles of bacterial communities were assessed by temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, which revealed that diversity was limited and that community changes observed depended on the carbon source used. Spatial variation in activity within the plume could be quantitatively accounted for by the changes observed in active cell numbers rather than differences in community structure, the total biomass present, or the increased enzyme activity of individual cells. Numerical simulations and comparisons with the experimental data were used to test conceptual models of plume processes. Results demonstrated that plume behavior was best described by growth and decay of active biomass as a single functional group of organisms represented by active cell counts.     

The influence of microbial redox cycling on radionuclide mobility in the subsurface at a low-level radioactive waste storage site

As anaerobic microbial metabolism can have a major impact on radionuclide speciation and mobility in the subsurface, the solubility of uranium, technetium and radium was determined in microcosms prepared from sediments adjacent to the Drigg low-level radioactive waste storage site (UK). Both uranium (as U(VI);     ) and Tc (as Tc(VII);     ) were removed from groundwater concurrently with microbial Fe(III) reduction, presumably through reduction to insoluble U(IV) and Tc(IV), respectively, while Ra (Ra²⁺) that had rapidly sorbed onto mineral surfaces was not released following Fe(III) reduction. Biogenic Fe(II) minerals in reduced Drigg sediments were unable to reduce U(VI) abiotically but could reduce Tc(VII). Following addition of the oxidant nitrate to the reduced sediments, uranium was remobilized and released into solution, whereas technetium remained associated with an insoluble phase. A close relative of Pseudomonas stutzeri dominated the microbial communities under denitrifying conditions, reducing nitrate to nitrite in the microcosms, which was able to reoxidize Fe(II) and U(IV), with release of the latter into solution as U(VI). These data suggest that microbial Fe(III) reduction in the far-field at Drigg has the potential to decrease the migration of some radionuclides in the subsurface, and the potential for reoxidation and remobilization by nitrate, a common contaminant in nuclear waste streams, is radionuclide-specific.     

Effects of pheromone plume structure and visual stimuli on the pheromone-modulated upwind flight of male gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar) in a Forest (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

The pheromone-modulated upwind flight ofLymantria dispar males responding to different pheromone plume structures and visual stimuli designed to mimic trees was video recorded in a forest. Males flying upwind along pheromone plumes of similar structure generated tracks that were similar in appearance and quantitatively similar in almost all parameters measured, regardless of the experimentally manipulated visual stimuli associated with the pheromone source. Net velocities, ground speeds, and airspeeds of males flying in point-source plumes were slower than those of males flying in the wider, more diffuse plumes issuing from a cylindrical baffle. The mean track angle of males flying in plumes issuing from a point source was greater (oriented more across the wind) than that of males flying in plumes issuing from a transparent cylindrical baffle. Males flying in point-source plumes also turned more frequently and had narrower tracks overall than males responding to plumes from a cylindrical baffle. These data suggest thatL. dispar males orienting to pheromone sources (i.e., calling females) associated with visible vertical cylinders (i.e., trees) use predominantly olfactory cues to locate the source and that the structure of the pheromone plume markedly affects the flight orientation and the resultant track.     

Changes in Odour Intermittency Influence the Success and Search Behaviour During Orientation in the Crayfish (Orconectes Rusticus)

Aquatic organisms may use different mechanisms to locate an odour source, including odour-gated rheotaxis and chemotaxis. However, the effects of spatial and temporal information contained within odour signals in guiding orientation are under debate. In nature, turbulence and plume meandering give rise to signal intermittency, which organisms must overcome to locate an odour source successfully. In this study, crayfish were presented with odour plumes formed by a continuously released jet or a pulsed jet ranging from 0.5 to 3 Hz. Crayfish oriented significantly differently in pulsed odour plumes differed significantly from than in a continuously released jet plume. In a continuous odour plumes, crayfish walked faster, had more accurate heading and turning angles, and stopped less often. The results suggest that crayfish are able to orient in a pulsed odour plumes, but that the spatial and temporal complexity of a continuous released odour plume allowed them to be more successful to find the odour source.     

Flight behaviour of Cadra cautella males in rapidly pulsed pheromone plumes

Abstract Airborne pheromone plumes in wind comprise filaments of odour interspersed with gaps of clean air. When flying moths intercept a filament, they have a tendency to surge upwind momentarily, and then fly crosswind until another filament is intercepted. Thus, the moment-to-moment contact with pheromone mediates the shape of a flight track along the plume. Within some range of favourable interception rates, flight tracks become straighter and are headed more due upwind. However, as the rate of interception increases, there comes a point at which the moth should not be able to discern discreet filaments but, rather, should perceive a 'fused signal'. At the extreme, homogeneous clouds of pheromone inhibit upwind progress by representative tortricids. In a wind tunnel, Cadra cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) were presented with 10 ms pulses of pheromone at a repetition rate of 5, 10, 17 and 25/s and a continuous, internally turbulent plume. Pulse size and concentrations were verified with a miniature photoionization detector sampling surrogate odour, propylene, at 100 Hz. Male moths maintain upwind progress even at plumes of 25 filaments/s. Furthermore, moths exhibited greater velocities and headings more due upwind at 17 and 25 Hz than at the lower frequencies or with the continuous plume. It is hypothesized that either C. cautella possesses a versatile sensory system that allows the resolution of these rapidly pulsed pheromone plumes, or that this species does not require a 'flickering' signal to fly upwind.     

The continuous recovery of uranium from biologically leached solutions using immobilized biomass

The potential of uranium recovery from the dilute uranium ore bioleach solutions of the Elliot Lake district of Canada was examined using immobilized microbial biomass. Batch and continuous laboratory scale pilot plant experiments were carried out. The results have shown that the immobilized microbial biomass can successfully recover all of the uranium from dilute (less than 300 mg U/L) solutions. The uranium can subsequently be eluted producing a high uranium concentration eluate perhaps exceeding 5000 mg U/L. The biomass maintained its biosorption capacity of about 50 mg U/g over 12 examined successive adsorption-elution cycles with no apparent indication of failure.     

Wave Glider Monitoring of Sediment Transport and Dredge Plumes in a Shallow Marine Sandbank Environment

As human pressure on the marine environment increases, safeguarding healthy and productive seas increasingly necessitates integrated, time- and cost-effective environmental monitoring. Employment of a Wave Glider proved very useful for the study of sediment transport in a shallow sandbank area in the Belgian part of the North Sea. During 22 days, data on surface and water-column currents and turbidity were recorded along 39 loops around an aggregate-extraction site. Correlation with wave and tidal-amplitude data allowed the quantification of current- and wave-induced advection and resuspension, important background information to assess dredging impacts. Important anomalies in suspended particulate matter concentrations in the water column suggested dredging-induced overflow of sediments in the near field (i.e., dynamic plume), and settling of finer-grained material in the far field (i.e., passive plume). Capturing the latter is a successful outcome to this experiment, since the location of dispersion and settling of a passive plume is highly dependent on the ruling hydro-meteorological conditions and thus difficult to predict. Deposition of the observed sediment plumes may cause habitat changes in the long-term.