生物演化基本规律与人类进化独特性(2)

生物历史和人类学资料等揭示,生物演化和人类进化是2种不同的改变形式,遵循不同的规律:生物演化以物种结构修改适应环境,环境变化主导物种演化,演化无方向性,它维持了物种与环境的依存关系;人类进化是脑和工具意识突破,即出现"依靠工具"意识,它带来了工具进步性方向改变,并产生了人体适应工具、文化等的结构修改以及人的环境关系性质改变。论述了生物演化基本规律和人类进化独特性、"演化"和"进化"的区别、人类进化的"转折点"等。     

生物演化基本规律与人类进化独特性(1)

以生物历史和人类学资料等揭示,生物演化和人类进化是2种不同的改变形式,遵循不同的规律:生物演化以物种结构修改适应环境,环境变化主导物种演化,演化无方向性,它维持了物种与环境的依存关系;人类进化是脑和工具意识突破,即出现"依靠工具"意识,它带来了工具进步性方向改变,并产生了人体适应工具、文化等的结构修改,以及人的环境关系性质改变。论述了生物演化基本规律和人类进化独特性、"演化"和"进化"的区别、人类进化的"转折点"等。     

生物多样性的起源演化及亚洲栽培稻的分类

本定义的生物多样性包括基因多样性、物种多样性及生态系统多样性。生命起源后到人类明40亿年的地球发展史可划分为前生命的化学进化、生物学进化和人类化进化与生物学进化并行3个阶段,并着重阐述了生物多样性演化中起关键性作用的蓝菌、维管植物与人类三类生物的重要地位和作用,以及地球上生态系统的4次明显扩展。最后以亚洲栽培稻为例说明其历经万年的起源与演化所形成的遗传多样性与分类。     

人类的足迹

地球上生物演化目前所能够达到最高级阶段的物种就是人类。人属于哺乳动物纲、灵长目、人科、人属、智人种。不同于其他生物物种,人类具有使用语言和工具,建立团体组织,构建社会的能力。根据达尔文的进化理论,作为人类始祖的类人猿在自然环境发生改变的巨大压力下,经过自然筛选最终演化成为高智商的人类。     

人类的足迹

地球上生物演化目前所能够达到最高级阶段的物种就是人类。人属于哺乳动物纲、灵长目、人科、人属、智人种。不同于其他生物物种,人类具有使用语言和工具,建立团体组织,构建社会的能力。根据达尔文的进化理论,作为人类始祖的类人猿在自然环境发生改变的巨大压力下,经过自然筛选最终演化成为高智商的人类。     

发育重演律与生物进化

发育重演律是生物个体发育的一般规律,该规律认为生物个体的发育是类囊胚不断形成和演化的过程,并认为生物进化亦是类囊胚不断形成和演化的过程.因类囊胚层级不断增加而导致的生物体结构复杂程度提高的演化为纵向进化,而不能提高生物体复杂程度的演化为横向演化,生物的纵向进化具有周期性.生物种系进化与个体发育之间具有严格的对应关系,一个物种经历的纵向进化的周期数与该物种所属个体完成发育所经历的细胞分化的周期数相等.     

早期地球的环境变化和生命的化学进化

生命起源是当代最大的科学疑谜之一,也是历来人类普遍关注的一个焦点。在地球上最早的生物出现之前,有机物经历了漫长而复杂的化学进化过程,称为生命的化学进化。地球上生命的化学进化与非生物部分的早期演化过程,是密切地相互关联、相互作用并相互制约的。文章着重阐述与生命的化学关系最为密切的冥古宙和太古宙的地球演化历史,指出这两个阶段所形成的还原性原始大气和古海洋条件在生命的化学进行中起了极其重要的作用,并且从宇宙形成、太阳系演化和地球环境早期演化的角度,探讨地球生命的化学进化历程;以地球形成初期发生了一系列复杂的有机化学反应过程,由无机分子生成生物小分子,再进一步生成生物大分子,直至最后产生原始细胞。此外,文章评述当前国际上最流行的生命化学进化学说,对早期地球的化学进化是发生在地球表面的原始海洋、粘土矿物、火山喷发等,或是来源于地球之外的宇宙空间进行了综合的阐述。     

“中国第四纪科学研究会古人类—旧石器专业委员会”成立

古人类学与旧石器时代考古学是研究人类起源、体质演化、行为特点和文化发展的综合性学科,是第四纪科学的重要分支。她紧紧围绕人类生物特点、文化行为、演化过程及其动因这一核心开展学术研究,其成果不断加深人类对自身的来源、演化历史、在多样的生物系统中的地位、     

昆虫嗅觉策略的进化

洛克菲勒大学和东京大学的研究人员发现,昆虫利用快速反应离子通道感知气味,这是一种完全不同于其他生物的嗅觉机制,也是生物进化领域的一大突破。达尔文生物进化树描绘了生物的进化路线,并可推测当代生物多样性的演化历程,而这项关于离子通道进化的结果有可能导致现有进化树的重构。     

少数民族聚落景观演变的文化驱动机制解析

少数民族聚落景观作为文化景观的一种特殊类型,其演变实质是文化的变迁。聚落景观演变的文化驱动机制有三：内化机制表现为人对聚落景观的意义认同和范式遵从;外化机制表现为人的意志外化为制度文化并对聚落景观施加影响;涵化机制解释相异文化接触交流的途径以及可能导致文化分离、整合、同化或边缘化的结果。分别对传统的和现代的少数民族聚落景观演变进行文化解析,提出基于内化机制重构意义系统,基于外化机制优化制度文化和营造真实景观,基于涵化机制弘扬文化自信与自觉,以抵御少数民族聚落景观的现代异化。     

Human Evolution and Education in Slovene Schools

This article discusses the importance and benefits of providing lower secondary school students with some knowledge of human evolution and its educational context. The author surveyed science teaching in secondary and upper secondary schools in Slovenia and concluded that evolution in general, and human evolution in particular, do not feature prominently in the curriculum and so are not represented by many teaching contact hours. Neither are popular, well-designed, and up-to-date books on the subject--whether by Slovene authors or in translation--readily available to interested students. And yet, paleoanthropology??the study of human evolution in its wider context??is a rapidly developing, high-profile branch of science with major popular appeal. Recent discoveries??many of them spectacular??have provided a much more detailed picture of human evolutionary history, significantly modifying earlier ideas about our ancestry. The subject not only attracts much public interest but also has major educational benefits: human evolution exemplifies many general evolutionary principles, illustrates the synergy of focused multidisciplinary approaches in the life sciences, and reinforces teaching of environmental conservation, human relations, and social responsibility. Because of the subject??s importance, the author provides some suggestions on how the teaching of human evolution might be incorporated into the school curriculum and considers some of the educational resources available to support its teaching.     

The Stagnancy of Family Studies in Modern Academia: Resistances Toward the Integration of Evolutionary Theory

The theory of natural selection has been vital in unifying the biological sciences and their research with a single testable metatheory. Despite a plethora of research supporting natural selection, teaching the theory of evolution remains controversial in high schools and higher education (Wilson et al. 2009; Scott 1997). In this article, we sample the attitudes toward evolution of 170 faculty and graduate and undergraduate students in family studies and human development programs from across the United States to determine whether resistances toward evolution remain and to describe the correlates of these resistances. Results reveal that an individual’s prosocial meliorist attitudes, religious ideation, and his or her reported interest in and knowledge of evolution all uniquely contribute to whether they report evolutionary theory as being applicable to their area of research interests. We discuss the relevance of including evolutionary theory within family studies and human development research programs and make suggestions for how to implement an evolutionary studies program (Wilson et al. 2009).     

On the chemistry and evolution of the pioneer organism

The theory of a chemo-autotrophic origin of life in a volcanic Iron-Sulfur World postulates the emergence of a pioneer organism within a flow of volcanic exhalations. The pioneer organism is characterized by a composite structure with an inorganic substructure and an organic superstructure. Within the surfaces of the inorganic substructure, iron, cobalt, nickel, and other transition-metal centers with sulfido, carbonyl, cyano, and other ligands are catalytically active, and promote the growth of the organic superstructure through carbon fixation, driven by the reducing potential of the volcanic exhalations. This pioneer organism is reproductive by an autocatalytic feedback effect, whereby some organic products serve as ligands for activating the catalytic metal centres whence they arise. This unitary structure-function relationship of the pioneer organism constitutes the 'Anlage' for two major strands of evolution: enzymatization and cellularization, whereby the upward evolution of life by increase of molecular complexity is grounded ultimately in the transition metal-catalyzed, synthetic redox chemistry of the pioneer organism.     

NASA's Exobiology Program

The goal of NASA's Exobiology Progam is to understand the origin, evolution, and distribution of life, and life-related molecules, on Earth and throughout the universe. Emphasis is focused on determining how the rate and direction of these processes were affected by the chemical and physical environment of the evolving planet, as well as by planetary, solar, and astrophysical phenomena. This is accomplished by a multi-disciplinary program of research conducted by over 60 principal investigators in both NASA and university laboratories. Major program thrusts are in the following research areas: biogenic elements; chemical evolution; origin of life; organic geochemistry; evolution of higher life forms; solar system exploration; and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETT).     

Insulin receptor recycling in vascular endothelial cells. Regulation by insulin and phorbol ester

Endothelial cell insulin receptors mediate the transcytosis of insulin from luminal to abluminal cell surface. We have investigated the kinetics of insulin receptor translocation by immunoprecipitation of radiolabeled receptors at various times before and after trypsin treatment of intact endothelial cells. Insulin receptors were constitutively internalized with t1/2 = 18 +/- 2 min and were recycled to the cell surface. Insulin stimulated receptor internalization and externalization rates 2.6- and 2.4-fold, respectively. Changes in cell-surface binding of 125I-insulin were consistent with the receptor translocation rates observed in surface-labeling experiments. Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) treatment increased the rate of insulin-stimulated receptor externalization 1.7-fold. PMA treatment increased the constitutive externalization rate 3.5-fold without affecting the constitutive internalization rate, suggesting that recycling might occur via a mobilization of receptors from intracellular sites in a manner independent of internalization rate. Analysis of the intracellular distribution of receptors by 125I-insulin binding and immunogold electron microscopy revealed that less than one-third of the total insulin receptor pool resided on the cell surface. In summary, endothelial cell insulin receptors are constitutively recycled, and internalization and externalization rates are increased by receptor occupancy and PMA treatment.     

Rapid constitutive internalization and externalization of epidermal growth factor receptors in isolated rat hepatocytes. Monensin inhibits receptor externalization and reduces the capacity for continued endocytosis of epidermal growth factor

It was previously demonstrated that freshly isolated rat hepatocytes can internalize severalfold more epidermal growth factor (EGF) molecules than the number of surface EGF receptors, suggesting extensive reutilization of receptors during endocytosis (Gladhaug, I. P. & Christoffersen, T. (1987) Eur. J. Biochem. 164, 267-275). The present report attempts to explore the pathways involved in the externalization of EGF receptors. Incubation of hepatocytes at 37 degrees C in the absence of ligand increased the surface receptor pool by 50-100% within 45 min. Pretreatment with monensin inhibited the turnover of the surface EGF receptor pool by 50-60% within 10 min and blocked the temperature-dependent externalization of receptors. Cycloheximide caused a slower attenuation of the surface receptor pool, whereas tunicamycin and chloroquine did not significantly affect the exchange of receptor pools. Monensin reduced the surface receptor pool and the endocytic uptake in corresponding proportions, without affecting the internalization of prebound EGF. Endocytic uptake was unaffected by chloroquine and slightly reduced by cycloheximide. The internalization of unoccupied receptors and the endocytosis of prebound EGF followed similar kinetics (t1/2 approximately 5 min), suggesting that unoccupied receptors are internalized at a rate comparable to that of occupied receptors. The results suggest that there is a rapid turnover of the surface pool of EGF receptors with constitutive internalization of unoccupied surface receptors and externalization of internal receptors. This is consistent with, but does not prove, a true recycling of the EGF receptors in the hepatocytes. The monensin-sensitive externalization pathway determines the capacity for continued endocytosis of EGF.     

Evaluation of cleavable (Tyr3)-octreotate derivatives for longer intracellular probe residence

Radioligand targeting of somatostatin receptor subtype 2 (sstr2)-positive tumors with synthetic somatostatin analogues such as octreotide is subject to improvement in tumor to nontumor biodistribution, in part because internalization of such somatostatin analogues is limited by sstr2 recycling to the cell surface. We reasoned that it might be possible to prepare probe-carrying somatostatin analogues that would escape recycling, efficiently depositing probe molecules inside cells and ultimately increasing their intracellular concentration. We have incorporated cathepsin-B-cleavable linkers into (Tyr3)-octreotate chelate conjugates and examined these constructs as to cellular uptake, externalization, subcellular localization, and cleavage in the rat pancreatic tumor cell line AR42J in culture. Comparison of the cleavable radioligands with a noncleavable control indicates that scission of the constituent cathepsin B substrate occurs at a rate faster than ligand externalization, depositing virtually all internalized cleaved radiochelates within lysosomal compartments.     

Bioturbation: a fresh look at Darwin's last idea

Bioturbation refers to the biological reworking of soils and sediments, and its importance for soil processes and geomorphology was first realised by Charles Darwin, who devoted his last scientific book to the subject. Here, we review some new insights into the evolutionary and ecological role of bioturbation that would have probably amazed Darwin. In modern ecological theory, bioturbation is now recognised as an archetypal example of 'ecosystem engineering', modifying geochemical gradients, redistributing food resources, viruses, bacteria, resting stages and eggs. From an evolutionary perspective, recent investigations provide evidence that bioturbation had a key role in the evolution of metazoan life at the end of the Precambrian Era.     

Human transferrin receptor internalization is partially dependent upon an aromatic amino acid on the cytoplasmic domain.

The objective of this work is to identify the elements of the human transferrin receptor that are involved in receptor internalization, intracellular sorting, and recycling. We have found that an aromatic side chain at position 20 on the cytoplasmic portion of the human transferrin receptor is required for efficient internalization. The wild-type human transferrin receptor has a tyrosine at this position. Replacement of the Tyr-20 with an aromatic amino acid does not alter the rate constant of internalization, whereas substitution with the nonaromatic amino acids serine, leucine, or cysteine reduces the internalization rate constant approximately three-fold. These results are consistent with similar studies of other receptor systems that have also documented the requirement for a tyrosine in rapid internalization. The amino terminus of the transferrin receptor is cytoplasmic, with the tyrosine 41 amino acids from the membrane. These two features distinguish the transferrin receptor from the other membrane proteins for which the role of tyrosine in internalization has been examined, because these proteins have the opposite polarity with respect to the membrane and because the tyrosines are located closer to the membrane (within 25 amino acids). The externalization rate for the recycling of the transferrin receptor is not altered by any of these substitutions, demonstrating that the aromatic amino acid internalization signal is not required for the efficient exocytosis of internalized receptor.