小核仁RNAs及其衍生RNAs的研究进展

小核仁RNAs(small nucleolarRNAs,snoRNAs)是一类发现较早且位于核仁内的小非编码RNAs,在核糖体RNAs(ribosomalRNAs,rRNAs)、信使RNAs(messengerRNAs,mRNAs)、小核RNAs(small nuclearRNAs,snRNAs)的成熟及修饰中均发挥重要作用。snoRNAs的功能及其作用途径一直以来均是学术界的研究热点。目前,snoRNAs对rRNAs的化学修饰作用已得到广泛认可。另外,有研究表明snoRNAs与一些遗传疾病以及肿瘤性疾病的发生发展存在密切关联。近年来研究发现,部分snoRNAs经切割可生成更小的、有功能的RNAs,即小核仁RNAs衍生RNAs(snoRNAs derivedRNAs,sdRNAs),这些sdRNAs中部分具有微小RNAs(microRNAs,miRNAs)的特征,可发挥类似miRNA的作用,这一发现极大地拓展了snoRNAs的作用机制方式。结合国内外研究现状,在总结snoRNAs的结构和基本功能的基础上对sdRNAs与miRNAs之间的相关性进行了综述,以期为后续的相关研究提供参考。     

细菌中的小RNA

小RNA（sRNA）或非编码RNA（ncRNA）在原核生物和真核生物中广泛分布。迄今,在各种细菌中共发现超过150种sRNA,在大肠杆菌中发现了约80种sRNA。sRNA通过与靶mRNA配对而发生作用,导致mRNA翻译和稳定性的变化;sRNA的功能涉及从结构调节到催化作用,影响生物体内各种各样的加工过程,一个单独的sRNA就能调控大量的基因并对细胞生理产生深远影响。目前,对sRNA的研究主要采用生物信息学预测结合分子生物学实验的方法。     

Small RNAs in pollen

In plants, each pollen mother cell undergoes two rounds of cell divisions to form a mature pollen grain, which contains a vegetative cell(VC) and two sperm cells(SC). As a companion cell, the VC carries the SCs to an ovule by germinating a pollen tube. In-depth sequencing analyses of mature pollen showed that micro RNAs(mi RNAs) and short interfering RNAs(si RNAs) are present in both the VC and SCs. Additionally, epigenetically-regulated transposable elements(TEs) are reactivated in the VC and these TE m RNAs are further processed into 21-nt epigenetically reactivated si RNA(easiR NA) in SCs, which prevent 24-nt si RNA accumulation and sequester mi RNA loading. Small RNAs are thought to move from the VC to SCs, where they regulate gene expression and reinforce TE silencing. Here, we summarize current knowledge of the biogenesis and function of mi RNAs, si RNAs, and easi RNAs in pollen, emphasizing how these different small RNAs coordinately contribute to sperm cell formation and TE silencing.     

Small RNAs and cancerogenesis

Disturbances of microRNA generation and functioning as inhibitors of gene expression at the translational level are considered as specific and diagnostic features of cancer. This review also highlights the role of short interfering RNA (siRNA) in modified epigenomic chromatin structure, which may cause cancer transformation. Future directions of cancer epigenomics are considered in the light of the involvement of siRNA in epigenomic modification of chromatin.     

Small noncoding RNAs in the germline

Small noncoding RNAs have emerged as potent regulators of gene expression, especially in the germline. We review the biogenesis and regulatory function of three major small noncoding RNA pathways in the germline: The small interfering RNA (siRNA) pathway that leads to the degradation of target mRNAs, the microRNA (miRNA) pathway that mostly represses the translation of target mRNAs, and the newly discovered Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathway that appears to have diverse functions in epigenetic programming, transposon silencing, and the regulation of mRNA translation and stability. The siRNA and miRNA pathways are present in the germline as well as many somatic tissues, whereas the piRNA pathway is predominantly confined to the germline. Investigation of the three small RNA pathways has started to reveal a new dimension of gene regulation with defining roles in germline specification and development.     

小RNA分子研究进展

在过去很长的一段时间内,RNA始终没有得到科学家足够的重视,直到非编码性小RNA（non—coding small RNA）的出现,使得研究者对RNA功能的传统观念发生了惊人的改变。生命体内存在着大量的miRNA、siRNA与piRNA,它们在不同水平上调节着基因的表达,影响生命活动。另外一些较长的非编码RNA广泛地参与到细胞内不同的生化过程中。发挥重要作用。随着小分子RNA的发现至今,RNA的研究领域进入炙手可热的状态,RNAi的机制在一步步被完善与深化．更多新类型的小分子RNA被发现。在应用方面,siRNA已经成为分子生物学实验中一种简单而有效的基因沉默工具,并且在人类疾病治疗方面初有成效。     

Small RNAs in Escherichia coli

Bacterial cells contain several small RNAs (sRNAs) that are not translated. These stable, abundant RNAs act by multiple mechanisms, such as RNA-RNA basepairing, RNA-protein interactions and intrinsic RNA activity, and regulate diverse cellular functions, including RNA processing, mRNA stability, translation, protein stability and secretion.     

Small nucleolar RNAs in cancer

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are important regulatory molecules involved in various physiological and cellular processes. Alterations of ncRNAs, particularly microRNAs, play crucial roles in tumorigenesis. Accumulating evidence indicates that small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), another large class of small ncRNAs, are gaining prominence and more actively involved in carcinogenesis than previously thought. Some snoRNAs exhibit differential expression patterns in a variety of human cancers and demonstrate capability to affect cell transformation, tumorigenesis, and metastasis. We are beginning to comprehend the functional repercussions of snoRNAs in the development and progression of malignancy. In this review, we will describe current studies that have shed new light on the functions of snoRNAs in carcinogenesis and the potential applications for cancer diagnosis and therapy.     

植物非细胞自主性小RNA分子研究进展

非细胞自主性是RNA干扰的主要特点之一,表现为沉默效应可以在细胞、组织和生物个体间传递和扩散,可移动的小RNA分子在这种非细胞自主性的沉默扩散中发挥了核心作用。近年来的研究表明小RNA分子可以与转录因子、多肽和植物激素一样传递胞间信息,并以其特有的方式调控发育模式、响应环境胁迫、增强病毒抗性和维持转座子的沉默。综述了近年来在植物非细胞自主性RNAi研究中取得的主要进展,主要介绍了通过韧皮部和胞间连丝途径传递沉默信号的各种小RNA分子及其生物学作用、非细胞自主性小RNA的分子特征和运输效率的调控,并对存在的问题及其研究前景进行了展望。     

Trans-kingdom Cross-Talk: Small RNAs on the Move

This review focuses on the mobility of small RNA (sRNA) molecules from the perspective of trans-kingdom gene silencing. Mobility of sRNA molecules within organisms is a well-known phenomenon, facilitating gene silencing between cells and tissues. sRNA signals are also transmitted between organisms of the same species and of different species. Remarkably, in recent years many examples of RNA-signal exchange have been described to occur between organisms of different kingdoms. These examples are predominantly found in interactions between hosts and their pathogens, parasites, and symbionts. However, they may only represent the tip of the iceberg, since the emerging picture suggests that organisms in biological niches commonly exchange RNA-silencing signals. In this case, we need to take this into account fully to understand how a given biological equilibrium is obtained. Despite many observations of trans-kingdom RNA signal transfer, several mechanistic aspects of these signals remain unknown. Such RNA signal transfer is already being exploited for practical purposes, though. Pathogen genes can be silenced by plant-produced sRNAs designed to affect these genes. This is also known as Host-Induced Genes Silencing (HIGS), and it has the potential to become an important disease-control method in the future.     

植物小RNAs的研究进展

小RNAs(长度小于40 nt)是nc-RNAs重要的一部分,现在植物中已发现了多种小RNAs,如小干扰RNAs(siRNAs)、微小RNAs(miRNAs)、反式作用的小干扰RNAs、天然反义转录小干扰RNAs、异染色质小干扰RNAs、长小片段小干扰RNAs、天然反义转录的微小RNAs及其一些未命名的小RNAs.成熟的小RNAs聚集相关的蛋白质因子,可以抑制转录,导致转录水平的基因沉默(TGS);或介导目标mRNA的剪切,抑制翻译,导致转录后水平基因沉默(PTGS).就这些植物小RNAs产生及其作用的研究进展作一概述     

Cellular Dynamics of Small RNAs

ABSTRACT

This review highlights the unexpectedly complicated nuclear egress and nuclear import of small RNAs. Although nucleus/cytoplasm trafficking was thought to be restricted to snRNAs of many, but not all, eukaryotes, recent data indicate that such traffic may be more common than previously appreciated. First, in conflict with numerous previous reports, new information indicates that Saccharomyces cerevisiae snRNAs may cycle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Second, recent studies also provide evidence that other small RNAs that function exclusively in the nucleus—the budding yeast telomerase RNA and possibly small nucleolar RNAs—may exit to the cytoplasm, only to return to the nucleus. Third, nucleus/cytoplasm cycling of RNAs also occurs for RNAs that function solely in the cytoplasm, as it has been discovered that cytoplasmic tRNAs of budding yeast travel “retrograde” to the nucleus and, perhaps, back again to the cytoplasm to function in protein synthesis. Fourth, there is at least one example in ciliates of small double-stranded RNAs traveling multiple cycles between the cytoplasm and distinct nuclei to direct genome structure. This report discusses data that support or argue against nucleus/cytoplasm bidirectional movement for each category of small RNA and the possible roles that such movement may serve.     

Small RNAs of Tetrahymena thermophila

Highly purified nuclear and cytoplasmic RNAs were obtained from Tetrahymena thermophila BVII containing only a minimal amount of cross-contamination. In the nuclear RNA fraction we have detected at least 6 distinct snRNAs. Some of the RNA species showed microheterogeneity. SnRNAs of Tetrahymena thermophila are very similar to rat snRNAs, as far as length is concerned. Our cytoplasmic small RNA fraction contained two RNAs, 7S and T7, reported recently (18) as nuclear, particularly nucleolar RNAs. Moreover, we could detect only one cytoplasmic small RNA species Tc1, Tc2 was not observed.Neither the nuclear nor the cytoplasmic small RNA species are degradation products of ribosomal RNA as was shown by Northern blotting and following hybridization with pGY17 containing the entire transcribed region of the ribosomal DNA of Tetrahymena thermophila.     

Small non-coding RNAs in animal development

The modulation of gene expression by small non-coding RNAs is a recently discovered level of gene regulation in animals and plants. In particular, microRNAs (miRNAs) and Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) have been implicated in various aspects of animal development, such as neuronal, muscle and germline development. During the past year, an improved understanding of the biological functions of small non-coding RNAs has been fostered by the analysis of genetic deletions of individual miRNAs in mammals. These studies show that miRNAs are key regulators of animal development and are potential human disease loci.