Electroporation: application to human lymphoid cell lines for stable introduction of a transactivator gene of human T-cell leukemia virus type I.

Conditions were developed for stable introduction of foreign DNA into human lymphoid cell lines by electroporation. To introduce stably the p40 gene of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) into the human lymphoid cell line Jurkat, the p40 expressing plasmid, pMAXRHneo-1, which carries the neo resistant gene, was transfected into Jurkat cells at a voltage of 2500 V and capacitance of 21.7 microF, and stable transformants were screened for neo (G418) resistance. The frequency of transformants was more than one per 2 x 10(5) cells used initially. Clones that were resistant to G418 were shown to have the p40 gene integrated into the host genome and to express mRNA and protein from the introduced plasmid. Expression of p40 in the transformed Jurkat cells was also confirmed by testing the trans-activating effect of HTLV-I enhancer by p40. High frequencies of stable transformations of 10(-4) to 10(-6) were also reproducibly obtained by electroporation of the human T cell lines HSB-2 and TALL-1, a human B cell line Raji, a human monocytic cell line U937, and a human erythroleukemia cell line K562. These results demonstrate that electroporation is a very efficient method for introducing foreign DNA into human lymphoid cell lines.     

Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication by a Tat-activated, transduced interferon gene: targeted expression to human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells.

We have examined the feasibility of using interferon (IFN) gene transfer as a novel approach to anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) therapy in this study. To limit expression of a transduced HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-IFNA2 (the new approved nomenclature for IFN genes is used throughout this article) hybrid gene to the HIV-1-infected cells, HIV-1 LTR was modified. Deletion of the NF-kappa B elements of the HIV-1 LTR significantly inhibited Tat-mediated transactivation in T-cell lines, as well as in a monocyte line, U937. Replacement of the NF-kappa B elements in the HIV-1 LTR by a DNA fragment derived from the 5'-flanking region of IFN-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15), containing the IFN-stimulated response element, partially restored Tat-mediated activation of LTR in T cells as well as in monocytes. Insertion of this chimeric promoter (ISG15 LTR) upstream of the human IFNA2 gene directed high levels of IFN synthesis in Tat-expressing cells, while this promoter was not responsive to tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated activation. ISG15-LTR-IFN hybrid gene inserted into the retrovirus vector was transduced into Jurkat and U937 cells. Selected transfected clones produced low levels of IFN A (IFNA) constitutively, and their abilities to express interleukin-2 and interleukin-2 receptor upon stimulation with phytohemagglutinin and phorbol myristate acetate were retained. Enhancement of IFNA synthesis observed upon HIV-1 infection resulted in significant inhibition of HIV-1 replication for a period of at least 30 days. Virus isolated from IFNA-producing cells was able to replicate in the U937 cells but did not replicate efficiently in U937 cells transduced with the IFNA gene. These results suggest that targeting IFN synthesis to HIV-1-infected cells is an attainable goal and that autocrine IFN synthesis results in a long-lasting and permanent suppression of HIV-1 replication.     

Transactivation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeats by cell surface tumor necrosis factor alpha.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) is expressed in secreted and cell surface (csTNF-alpha) forms by activated monocytic and T cells. In this report, we demonstrate that csTNF-alpha may predominantly regulate the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) long terminal repeat (LTR) activation in the promonocytic cell line U937 and in the Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B-cell line BH1. Anti-TNF-alpha antibody suppressed both the constitutive expression of the HIV-1 LTR in BH1 cells and the expression induced by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate in U937 cells. This suppression was found to be mediated via csTNF-alpha. No correlation between the HIV-1 LTR activation and the secretion of TNF-alpha was evident in these cell lines. Suppression of TNF-alpha secretion by cyclosporin A or by a serine protease inhibitor did not suppress the HIV-1 LTR activation. These observations suggest a novel biological role for csTNF-alpha in the immunopathogenesis of AIDS.     

Signaling through T lymphocyte surface proteins, TCR/CD3 and CD28, activates the HIV-1 long terminal repeat

The state of T cell activation and proliferation controls HIV-1 replication and gene expression. Previously, we demonstrated that the administration of PHA and PMA to the human T cell line Jurkat activates the HIV-1 enhancer, which is composed of two nuclear factor kappa B (NF kappa B) binding sites. Here, we show that PMA alone is sufficient for this effect. In addition, activation of T cells through the surface proteins TCR/CD3 and CD28 increased gene expression directed by the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) to the same extent as PMA. Analysis of 5' deletions in the LTR revealed that the NF kappa B binding sites and sequences in the upstream U3 region are required for this response. Whereas cyclosporin A did not inhibit the effect of PMA, it reduced the effects of agonists to TCR/CD3 and CD28 on the LTR. H7, an inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC), blocked the effects of all stimuli. Thus, PMA activates the NF kappa B sites through a PKC-dependent pathway while ligands to TCR/CD3 and CD28 activate the LTR through a cyclosporin A-sensitive, PKC-dependent pathway of T cell activation. We conclude that mechanisms involved in the expression of IL-2 and the alpha-chain of the IL-2R alpha genes also play a role in the regulation of HIV-1. Physiologic stimuli can activate HIV-1 gene expression; agents that block T cell activation also inhibit activation of the LTR. These observations might serve as a model for the regulation of HIV-1 gene expression in peripheral blood T cells.     

以HIV-1 5＇LTR为靶点的药物筛选细胞模型的构建

构建以人类免疫缺陷病毒（HIV-1）5＇LTR为靶点的药物筛选细胞模型,用于体外筛选潜在的对HIV-1启动子具有抑制作用的药物,或用于筛选与HIV-1复制相关的宿主因子。通过PCR扩增HIV-1 5＇LTR片段和胸苷激酶基因（thymidine kinase gene,TK基因）,以这2片段为模板进行重叠PCR将两者连接起来,连接产物经酶切后与pcDNA3.1载体连接;将连接正确的质粒转染HEK293细胞同时用G418加压筛选获得稳定细胞系;加入药物更昔洛韦（GCV）检测TK基因的表达。成功构建了HIV-1 5＇LTR调控TK基因表达的稳定细胞系,在其培养过程中加入药物更昔洛韦时,细胞逐渐死亡。构建了以HIV-1 5＇LTR为靶点的药物筛选细胞模型,该模型利用TK基因作为报告基因方便灵敏,可用于筛选针对HIV-1 5＇LTR的潜在抗HIV药物。     

Cell-specific differences in activation of NF-kappa B regulatory elements of human immunodeficiency virus and beta interferon promoters by tumor necrosis factor.

Three aspects of the involvement of tumor necrosis factor in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis were examined. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNA production was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction amplification in monocytic U937 cells and in a chronically HIV infected U937 cell line (U9-IIIB). TNF-alpha RNA was undetectable in U937 cells, whereas a low constitutive level was detected in U9-IIIB cells. Paramyxovirus infection induced a 5- to 10-fold increase in the steady-state level of TNF-alpha RNA in U9-IIIB cells compared with U937 cells, suggesting that HIV-infected monocytic cells produced higher levels of TNF-alpha than did normal cells after a secondary virus infection. The effects of TNF-alpha on gene expression were examined by transient expression assays using reporter chloramphenicol acetyltransferase plasmids linked to regulatory elements from the HIV long terminal repeat (LTR) and the beta interferon promoter. In U937 and Jurkat T lymphoid cells, the inducibility of the different hybrid promoters by TNF-alpha or phorbol ester varied in a cell type- and promoter context-specific manner; the levels of gene activity of NF-kappa B-containing plasmids correlated directly with induction of NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity. Although the intact beta interferon promoter was only weakly stimulated by phorbol ester or TNF-alpha, multimers of the PRDII NF-kappa B-binding domain were inducible by both agents. TNF-alpha was able to increase expression of the HIV LTR in T cells, but in monocytic cells, TNF-alpha did not induce the HIV LTR above a constitutive level of activity. This level of NF-kappa B-independent activity appears to be sufficient for virus multiplication, since TNF-alpha treatment had no effect on the kinetics of de novo HIV type 1 (HIV-1) infection and viral RNA production in U937 cells. However, in Jurkat cells, TNF-alpha dramatically enhanced the spread of HIV-1 through the cell population and increased viral RNA synthesis, indicating that in T cells HIV-1 multiplication was stimulated by TNF-alpha treatment.     

Induction of NF-KB during monocyte differentiation by HIV type 1 infection

The production of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) progeny was followed in the U937 promonocytic cell line after stimulation either with retinoic acid or PMA, and in purified human monocytes and macrophages. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and Southwestern blotting experiments were used to detect the binding of cellular transactivation factor NF-KB to the double repeat-KB enhancer sequence located in the long terminal repeat. PMA treatment, and not retinoic acid treatment of the U937 cells acts in inducing NF-KB expression in the nuclei. In nuclear extracts from monocytes or macrophages, induction of NF-KB occurred only if the cells were previously infected with HIV-1. When U937 cells were infected with HIV-1, no induction of NF-KB factor was detected, whereas high level of progeny virions was produced, suggesting that this factor was not required for viral replication. These results indicate that in monocytic cell lineage, HIV-1 could mimic some differentiation/activation stimuli allowing nuclear NF-KB expression.     

In Vitro Modification of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) Infectivity by the U937 Cells

The effect of host cell factors on infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was studied by infecting a monoblastoid cell line (U937) or a T-cell line (MOLT-4) with a highly infective single clone of HIV-1 and comparing the infectivity of the produced viruses to different cell lines. Chronically infected U937 cells consistently produced viruses with minimal infectivity. This phenotypic change was host-dependent as the back-passage of the U937-produced low infective viruses into MOLT-4 cells resulted in regaining their original high infectivity. Southern and Northern blot analyses of the HIV-1 grown in U937 cells did not reveal any genomic difference between it and the virus grown it MOLT-4 cells. The radioimmunoprecipitation analysis of viral proteins showed that the HIV-1-infected U937 cells had a different pattern of envelope glycoproteins and core proteins, which well correlated with the low infectivity of the produced viruses. This experimental system using MOLT-4 and U937 cell lines would be useful to further explore host cell factor(s) which play an important role in the regulation of HIV-1 infectivity.     

Induced recombination between duplicated neo genes stably integrated in the genome of CHO cells

Homologous recombination between 2 truncated neo genes stably integrated in the genome of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells was studied. A vector containing a functional gpt gene and 2 tandemly arranged G418 resistance (neo) gene fragments with about 400 bp of sequence homology was transfected into CHO cells. Clonal cell lines were established from transfected cultures and the spontaneous frequency of G418-resistant revertants was found to range between 1 x 10(-4) and 5 x 10(-4). The ability of the alkylating agents MMS and HN2 to induce recombination of the transfected neo genes was studied in 2 of the cell lines. After treatment with MMS at doses that reduced survival to 10% of the control these cell lines showed a dose-dependent increase in the frequency of G418-resistant revertants. No effect was observed after treatment with HN2. All G418-resistant subclones contained a new restriction fragment indicating that a whole neo gene had been formed by rearrangement in pairs of truncated neo genes. Hence, this system can be used to study molecular mechanisms and chemical inducibility of homologous recombination in mammalian cells.     

Graduated resistance to G418 leads to differential selection of cultured mammalian cells expressing the neo gene

The effects of Geneticin (G418) selection on the growth and survival of cultured mammalian cells expressing the neomycin-resistance gene (neo) were studied by the analysis of cell clones from two retroviral neo vector-infected populations. We found a correlation between the neo expression level and growth rates in medium containing varying G418 concentrations. This relationship permits the use of differential selection schemes for the isolation of rare cells with increased expression. Comparison, by clone sampling, of vector-positive populations before and after selection with a G418 concentration in the range usually used for selection, showed different expression level and vector copy number distributions for the population infected with the vector of lower LTR activity, but not for the other. Such biasing effects of G418 selection may be important when selected cells are used for quantitative studies of gene expression.     

人单核细胞系中HIV-1前病毒转录调节新型研究模型的建立

【目的】抗反转录病毒疗法(ART)能够有效控制人免疫缺陷病毒(Human immunodeficiency virus-1,HIV-1)的复制,但是不能将其完全清除。至2012年底,全球仍有3 500万HIV-1感染者,同年约160万人死于艾滋病(Acquired immune deficiency syndrome,AIDS)及其相关疾病。HIV-1感染难以根治的主要原因之一是机体内HIV-1潜伏储存库(Reservoir)的存在。HIV-1潜伏储存库主要由CD4+T细胞和单核巨噬细胞构成,与CD4+T细胞相比,目前研究者对单核巨噬系细胞中HIV-1病毒复制机制尚不明了,且缺乏适宜的研究体系。因此,为探讨单核细胞活化或分化信号对HIV-1复制的影响,我们建立了旨在研究HIV-1前病毒转录调控机制的人单核巨噬细胞系模型。【方法】构建env区域移码突变和nef区域携带EGFP或Nano Luc报告基因的HIV-1 NLn GFP-Kp或NLn Nano Luc-Kp重组病毒,分别感染2种人单核细胞系THP-1或U937细胞。通过有限稀释法制备单克隆细胞系,利用流式细胞术或Nano Luc荧光素酶活性分析检测报告基因的表达。筛选EGFP或Nano Luc阴性表达的细胞克隆,经激活剂佛波酯(Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate,PMA)刺激后鉴定潜伏感染的细胞克隆。【结果】研究中鉴定了4个HIV-1潜伏感染的细胞克隆。其中2个是表达EGFP的THP-1克隆,2个是以Nano Luc为报告基因的U937克隆。这些克隆在PMA刺激处理后皆有报告基因的表达,而在恒态条件下未检测到报告基因的表达。【结论】成功建立了4个HIV-1潜伏感染的人单核细胞系克隆,该模型有助于理解单核巨噬系细胞的HIV-1病毒复制机制,可能成为进一步研究HIV-1前病毒转录调控机制的有力工具。     

shRNA随机文库结合TK自杀基因筛选靶向HIV-1LTR相关宿主因子

构建shRNA随机文库与HIV-1 LTR启动胸苷激酶基因(TK基因)稳定表达的稳定细胞系HEK293/TK,将两者结合起来,筛选靶向HIV-1 LTR相关宿主因子.方法:通过化学合成含有19个随机脱氧核苷酸的发夹结构,将其退火补平后与合成的接头Linker连接进行PCR反应,将PCR产物酶切后置于慢病毒载体pLenti-U6启动子下游由此构建shRNA随机文库;利用重叠PCR将HIV-1 LTR片段和TK基因连接起来,连接产物经酶切后与pcDNA3.1载体连接;将连接正确的质粒转染HEK293细胞同时用G418加压筛选获得稳定细胞系HEK293/TK;将所获得的文库质粒包装成慢病毒后侵染所构建的HEK293/TK细胞系,通过加入药物GCV进行加压筛选获得存活细胞.结果:成功筛选到加药后存活下来的细胞,抽提细胞基因组,采用巢式PCR扩增目的干扰序列并用Western blot对干扰序列进行验证,鉴定获得一个克隆所表达的shRNA能对TK基因的表达起到抑制作用,通过测序分析获得其干扰序列,该序列很有可能针对HIV-1 LTR某宿主相关因子.结论:成功构建了一种筛选HIV-1 LTR相关宿主因子的方法,筛选所得序列可以定位到具体相关宿主因子,为靶向筛选抗HIV-1药物提供了重要手段.     

Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 2 transactivates the long terminal repeat of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected subjects show a high incidence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. This suggests that EBV may function as a cofactor that affects HIV-1 activation and may play a major role in the progression of AIDS. To test this hypothesis, we generated two EBV-negative human B-cell lines that stably express the EBNA2 gene of EBV. These EBNA2-positive cell lines were transiently transfected with plasmids that carry either the wild type or deletion mutants of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) fused to the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene. There was a consistently higher HIV-1 LTR activation in EBNA2-expressing cells than in control cells, which suggested that EBNA2 proteins could activate the HIV-1 promoter, possibly by inducing nuclear factors binding to HIV-1 cis-regulatory sequences. To test this possibility, we used CAT-based plasmids carrying deletions of the NF-kappa B (pNFA-CAT), Sp1 (pSpA-CAT), or TAR (pTAR-CAT) region of the HIV-1 LTR and retardation assays in which nuclear proteins from EBNA2-expressing cells were challenged with oligonucleotides encompassing the NF-kappa B or Sp1 region of the HIV-1 LTR. We found that both the NF-kappa B and the Sp1 sites of the HIV-1 LTR are necessary for EBNA2 transactivation and that increased expression resulted from the induction of NF-kappa B-like factors. Moreover, experiments with the TAR-deleted pTAR-CAT and with the tat-expressing pAR-TAT plasmids indicated that endogenous Tat-like proteins could participate in EBNA2-mediated activation of the HIV-1 LTR and that EBNA2 proteins can synergize with the viral tat transactivator. Transfection experiments with plasmids expressing the EBNA1, EBNA3, and EBNALP genes did not cause a significant HIV-1 LTR activation. Thus, it appears that among the latent EBV genes tested, EBNA2 was the only EBV gene active on the HIV-1 LTR. The transactivation function of EBNA2 was also observed in the HeLa epithelial cell line, which suggests that EBV and HIV-1 infection of non-B cells may result in HIV-1 promoter activation. Therefore, a specific gene product of EBV, EBNA2, can transactivate HIV-1 and possibly contribute to the clinical progression of AIDS.     

Phorbol ester inhibits DNA damage-induced apoptosis in U937 cells through activation of protein kinase C

The effects of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) on DNA damage-induced apoptosis were examined in promyelocytic leukemia cells, U937, in comparison with other differentiation-inducing agents to clarify the role of protein kinase C (PKC) vis-a-vis cellular differentiation in apoptosis. The apoptosis of U937 cells was observed at as early as 1-1.5 h following UV irradiation, with most cells being in apoptotic state at 3 h. Pretreatment with PMA for as short as 5 min was sufficient to inhibit apoptosis induced by UV irradiation, whereas apparent changes in cell cycle distributions and expression of differentiation markers by PMA were not observed until 12 h and 48 h, respectively. The inhibition of apoptosis by PMA was completely abolished by the pretreatment with calphostin C, a PKC inhibitor, and 4 alpha-phorbor 12,13-didecanoate, which is unable to activate PKC, did not protect U937 cells against apoptosis induced by UV irradiation. Other differentiation inducers, such as cyclic AMP and active vitamin D3, did not affect the UV-induced apoptosis of U937 cells. Taken together, it was suggested that PMA inhibits DNA damage-induced apoptosis through the activation of PKC rather than as a result of differentiation of U937 cells.     

Phosphorylated form of MacMARCKS is essential to LFA-1-dependent cell-cell adhesion of U937 monocytic cells.

MacMARCKS (MRP, F52), a protein kinase C (PKC) substrate, is involved in the activation of beta2-integrin. To determine the role of the PKC-mediated phosphorylation of MacMARCKS in this process, human U937 monocytic cells were transfected with cDNAs encoding wild type or mutant MacMARCKS. We observed that the expression of the exogenous wild type MacMARCKS greatly enhanced LFA-1-mediated cell-cell adhesion in U937 cells treated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). This MacMARCKS-stimulated adhesion depended on the phosphorylation status of MacMARCKS: whereas phosphorylated MacMARCKS enhanced adhesion, unphosphorylated MacMARCKS inhibited it. However, phosphorylated MacMARCKS alone could not induce LFA-1-mediated cell-cell adhesion unless phorbol esters were added, suggesting that the phosphorylation of other proteins might also be involved. Okadaic acid, a phosphatase inhibitor, induced LFA-1-mediated cell-cell adhesion only in the cells expressing wild type or phosphorylated MacMARCKS and not in the cells expressing unphosphorylated MacMARCKS. Therefore, we conclude that the phosphorylated form of MacMARCKS is essential to LFA-1-mediated cell-cell adhesion.