Cloning, expression and processing of the CP2 neuropeptide precursor of Aplysia.

The cDNA sequence encoding the CP2 neuropeptide precursor is identified and encodes a single copy of the neuropeptide that is flanked by appropriate processing sites. The distribution of the CP2 precursor mRNA is described and matches the CP2-like immunoreactivity described previously. Single cell RT-PCR independently confirms the presence of CP2 precursor mRNA in selected neurons. MALDI-TOF MS is used to identify additional peptides derived from the CP2 precursor in neuronal somata and nerves, suggesting that the CP2 precursor may give rise to additional bioactive neuropeptides.     

Molecular cloning and circadian expression profile of insect neuropeptide PDF in black blowfly, Phormia regina

Pigment-dispersing factor PDF is an 18-amino acid insect neuropeptide that mediates a circadian rhythmicity in locomotor activity. PDF is coded in a precursor protein together with another neuropeptide named PDF-associated peptide, PAP. PDF is highly conserved among insects, whereas the homology of PAPs is very low with considerably varied amino acid sequences. Since such dissimilarity has suggested that the function of PAP peptide is not associated with that of PDF, we have attempted to analyze the sequences of PDF precursor proteins among a series of species of insects and hypothesized that PDF precursors are classified into at least three different classes: Drosophila-Musca, Meimuna-Romalea, and Gryllus. In order to exemplify this hypothesis, we here describe the molecular cloning of the pdf-gene of the black blowfly Phormia regina and an in silico screening for the pdf-gene in the genome databank of the mosquito Anopheles gambie, both species belonging to the Diptera. It was found that deduced amino acid sequences of PDF peptides are almost completely conserved among all Dipterans and also the amino acid sequences of PAPs are considerably highly preserved (55–82 similarity) among the species of Diptera. The results confirmed the validity of grouping the PDF precursor proteins. In situ hybridization was carried out in fly brains to identify the precise locations of pdf-expressing cells and to examine any daily cycling of pdf mRNA. Intense signals for pdf mRNA were identified in the medulla, but not in the pars lateralis where PDF neurons were strongly immunostained by the antibody raised against PDF peptide. Hybridization was also performed for the brain samples at two hour intervals throughout the day. Although very intense hybridization signals were observed at ZT8 even in some neurites, no prominent rhythmicity of pdf mRNA expression was observed.     

Neuropeptides in interneurons of the insect brain

A large number of neuropeptides has been identified in the brain of insects. At least 35 neuropeptide precursor genes have been characterized in Drosophila melanogaster, some of which encode multiple peptides. Additional neuropeptides have been found in other insect species. With a few notable exceptions, most of the neuropeptides have been demonstrated in brain interneurons of various types. The products of each neuropeptide precursor seem to be co-expressed, and each precursor displays a unique neuronal distribution pattern. Commonly, each type of neuropeptide is localized to a relatively small number of neurons. We describe the distribution of neuropeptides in brain interneurons of a few well-studied insect species. Emphasis has been placed upon interneurons innervating specific brain areas, such as the optic lobes, accessory medulla, antennal lobes, central body, and mushroom bodies. The functional roles of some neuropeptides and their receptors have been investigated in D. melanogaster by molecular genetics techniques. In addition, behavioral and electrophysiological assays have addressed neuropeptide functions in the cockroach Leucophaea maderae. Thus, the involvement of brain neuropeptides in circadian clock function, olfactory processing, various aspects of feeding behavior, and learning and memory are highlighted in this review. Studies so far indicate that neuropeptides can play a multitude of functional roles in the brain and that even single neuropeptides are likely to be multifunctional.The original research in the authors’ laboratories was supported by DFG grants HO 950/14 and 950/16 (U.H.) and Swedish Research Council grant VR 621-2004-3715 (D.R.N).     

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol membrane anchors in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: absence of ceramides from complete precursor glycolipids.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring of membrane proteins occurs through two distinct steps, namely the assembly of a precursor glycolipid and its subsequent transfer onto newly synthesized proteins. To analyze the structure of the yeast precursor glycolipid we made use of the pmi40 mutant that incorporates very high amounts of [3H]mannose. Two very polar [3H]mannose-labeled glycolipids named CP1 and CP2 qualified as GPI precursor lipids since their carbohydrate head group, Man alpha 1,2(X-->PO4-->6)Man alpha 1,2Man alpha 1,6Man alpha-GlcN-inositol (with X most likely being ethanolamine) comprises the core structure which is common to all GPI anchors described so far. CP1 predominates in cells grown at 24 degrees C whereas CP2 is induced by stress conditions. The apparent structural identity of the head groups suggests that CP1 and CP2 contain different lipid moieties. The lipid moieties of both CP1 and CP2 can be removed by mild alkaline hydrolysis although the protein-bound GPI anchors made by the pmi40 cells under identical labeling conditions contain mild base resistant ceramides. These findings imply that the ceramide moiety found on the majority of yeast GPI anchored proteins is added through a lipid remodeling step that occurs after the addition of the GPI precursor glycolipids to proteins.     

Isolation and characterization of a Drosophila neuropeptide gene

We have purified a 9 amino acid amidated neuropeptide, DPKQDFMRFamide, from whole adult D. melanogaster. This peptide exhibits sequence homology to the molluscan bioactive tetrapeptide FMRFamide and is a novel member of the FMRFamide peptide family. The gene encoding DPKQDFMRFamide has been cloned and characterized. It is present in a single copy per haploid genome, is expressed as a unique 1.7 kb mRNA species, and cytologically maps to 46C on the right arm of chromosome 2. Characterization of a cDNA clone indicates that the precursor protein is 347 amino acids in length and contains 5 copies of DPKQDFMRFamide, as well as 10 additional amidated peptides exhibiting varying degrees of structural relatedness. The Drosophila DPKQDFMRFamide gene and the Aplysia FMRFamide gene are ancestrally related; however, peptides display a higher degree of homology within a species than between species, suggesting intragenic concerted evolution of these neuropeptides.     

下丘脑Nesfatin-1/NUCB2对糖尿病小鼠摄食的影响

目的:探讨下丘脑神经肽NUCB2与Tsumura Suzuki(TS)多基因突变2型糖尿病(T2DM)小鼠摄食过多的关系。方法:将动物分为Tsumura Suzuki糖尿病(TSD)小鼠、正常小鼠;监视器监测小鼠摄食量;分析血生化指标;定量RT-PCR分析摄食相关神经肽m RNA表达水平;放射免疫分析法检测nesfatin-1蛋白水平。结果:与年龄匹配的TSN小鼠相比,TSD小鼠在1月龄就存在体重增加(P<0.05)和高瘦素血症(P<0.05),3-12月龄出现贪食(P<0.05)、高血糖(P<0.05)、高血脂(P<0.05)和高胰岛素血症(P<0.05),且3-12月龄时厌食肽nesfatin-1前体核连蛋白2(NUCB2)m RNA和nesfatin-1蛋白水平均显著降低(P<0.05~0.01);TSD小鼠下丘脑甘丙肽、黑色素浓集素、神经肽Y及前黑素细胞皮质素原m RNA水平也有显著改变(P<0.05)。结论:下丘脑NUCB2介导信号通路破坏可能导致TSD小鼠摄食过多。     

Identification of the novel bioactive peptides dRYamide-1 and dRYamide-2, ligands for a neuropeptide Y-like receptor in Drosophila

A number of bioactive peptides are involved in regulating a wide range of animal behaviors, including food consumption. Vertebrate neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a potent stimulator of appetitive behavior. Recently, Drosophila neuropeptide F (dNPF) and short NPF (sNPF), the Drosophila homologs of the vertebrate NPY, were identified to characterize the functions of NPFs in the feeding behaviors of this insect. Dm-NPFR1 and NPFR76F are the receptors for dNPF and sNPF, respectively; both receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Another GPCR (CG5811; NepYR) was indentified in Drosophila as a neuropeptide Y-like receptor. Here, we identified 2 ligands of CG5811, dRYamide-1 and dRYamide-2. Both peptides are derived from the same precursor (CG40733) and have no significant structural similarities to known bioactive peptides. The C-terminal sequence RYamide of dRYamides is identical to that of NPY family peptides; on the other hand, dNPF and sNPF have C-terminal RFamide. When administered to blowflies, dRYamide-1 suppressed feeding motivation. We propose that dRYamides are related to the NPY family in vertebrates, similar to dNPF and sNPF.     

The use ofin situ hybridization histochemistry for the study of neuropeptide gene expression in the human brain

1. The application of in situ hybridization histochemistry to the study of neuropeptide gene expression in human brain postmortem tissues is reviewed. We focus on neuropeptides preferentially expressed in hypothalamus and basal ganglia. 32P-labeled oligonucleotides were used as hybridization probes. 2. Autoradiography combined with computerized image analysis was used to visualize and quantify the hybridization signal. 3. Several criteria were considered in order to ascertain the specificity of the signal, including Northern analysis, use of heterologous probes, competition assays, and thermal stability of the hybrids. 4. In control human striatum high levels of hybridization signal were observed for somatostatin, neuropeptide Y, and preproenkephalin A mRNAs. In contrast, no detectable signal was observed with the cholecystokinin, arginine-vasopressin, and oxytocin probes in this area. In the hypothalamus high levels of oxytocin and arginine-vasopressin mRNAs were visualized in several nuclei. Preproenkephalin A and somatostatin mRNAs were also observed in this region, while cholecystokinin mRNA was not detected. 5. No significant correlations were found between the density of the hybridization signal and parameters such as postmortem delay, age, and gender in the population studied. 6. Finally, alterations of mRNA levels for some of these peptides were found in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's chorea striatal tissues. 7. These results show that in situ hybridization histochemistry can be used to examine at the microscopic level neuropeptide gene expression in postmortem materials.     

ICV injection of orexin A induces synthesis of total RNA and mRNA encoding preorexin in various cerebral regions of the rat

This experiment evaluated the induction of RNA synthesis in neurons of various cerebral areas during hyperthermia induced by an intracerebroventricular injection of orexin A. The firing rates of the sympathetic nerves to interscapular brown adipose tissue, along with interscapular brown adipose tissue and colon temperatures, and heart rate were monitored in urethane-anesthetized male Sprague–Dawley rats before and after an injection of orexin A (1.5 nmol) into the lateral cerebral ventricle. Furthermore, the incorporation of ³H-uridine in total RNA and the expression of mRNA encoding the precursor of orexin A were measured in the cerebral areas at the 4th hour after the injection. The same variables were monitored in control rats with an injection of saline. The results show that orexin A increases the sympathetic firing rate, interscapular brown adipose tissue and colonic temperatures, heart rate, along with: (1) the incorporation of ³H-uridine in total RNA of the hypothalamus, hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum, (2) the expression of mRNA encoding the precursor of orexin A in the hypothalamus, cortex and cerebellum. These findings indicate that orexin A induces polyhedral gene expressions in several cerebral regions. Furthermore, we insist to suggest the name “hyperthermine A” as an additional denomination of “orexin A” by considering the strong influence of this neuropeptide on body temperature.     

Regulation of chromogranin biosynthesis by neurotrophic growth factors in neuroblastoma cells

Polypeptide growth factors secreted from the target tissue determine the choice of transmitter synthesis in the innervating nerves. We have investigated whether they also influence the expression of chromogranins and neuropeptide Y, components co-stored with the neurotransmitters within large dense-core vesicles. IMR-32 and SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells were treated for up to six days with various neurotrophic growth and differentiation factors. For chromogranins A and B, no significant changes at the mRNA level were observed and for chromogranin A this was confirmed at the protein level. The expression of secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin mRNA, however, was considerably enhanced in both cell lines after basic fibroblast growth factor treatment. In IMR-32 cells we determined a fast and continuous induction, whereas the up-regulation in SH-SY5Y cells was more delayed. A transient elevation of secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin mRNA levels was seen in SH-SY5Y cells in response to epidermal growth factor. In these cells we also measured the amounts of secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin protein which were increased by both growth factors. In addition to the above described changes in secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin biosynthesis we extended and confirmed data available on neuropeptide Y. We found a qualitatively similar pattern of biosynthesis regulation as for secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin, indicating that the ultimately increased expression of the two proteins may be characteristic of the phenotypic differentiation after growth factor treatment. Moreover, this finding of a concomitant regulation further emphasizes the concept of secretogranin II/pro-secretoneurin being a neuropeptide precursor from which the functional peptide secretoneurin is proteolytically liberated.     

Neuropeptide Y is neuroproliferative for post-natal hippocampal precursor cells

New neurones are produced in the adult hippocampus throughout life and are necessary for certain types of hippocampal learning. Little, however, is known about the control of hippocampal neurogenesis. We used primary hippocampal cultures from early post-natal rats and neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor knockout mice as well as selective neuropeptide Y receptor antagonists and agonists to demonstrate that neuropeptide Y is proliferative for nestin-positive, sphere-forming hippocampal precursor cells and beta-tubulin-positive neuroblasts and that the neuroproliferative effect of neuropeptide Y is mediated via its Y1 receptor. Immunohistochemistry confirmed Y1 receptor staining on both nestin-positive cells and beta-tubulin-positive cells in culture and short pulse 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine studies demonstrated that neuropeptide Y has a proliferative effect on both cell types. These studies suggest that the proliferation of hippocampal neuroblasts and precursor cells is increased by neuropeptide Y and, therefore, that hippocampal learning and memory may be modulated by neuropeptide Y-releasing interneurones.     

The orphanin FQ/nociceptin gene: structure, tissue distribution of expression and functional implications obtained from knockout mice

Like other neuropeptides, orphanin FQ/nociceptin (OFQ/N) is encoded by a larger precursor protein. The cDNA for the OFQ/N precursor has been cloned from human, rat, mouse and bovine tissue demonstrating that this peptidergic system serves important functions that have been conserved during evolution. The structural organization of the precursor protein is similar to opioid peptide precursors, supporting the view of a common origin for the opioid systems and the OFQ/N system. In addition to OFQ/N, the precursor may encode two other biologically active peptides. Anatomic studies have revealed high levels of expression of the OFQ/N messenger RNA in brain structures involved in sensory, emotional and cognitive processing. In particular, high levels of OFQ/N mRNA were detected in the limbic system, underlining the stress attenuating activities that have been described as an important function of OFQ/N. Recently, mutant mice have been generated that lack the precursor protein of OFQ/N to further define the physiological functions of the OFQ/N system. The OFQ/N-deficient mice are characterized by an increased sensitivity to stressful stimuli and a lack of habituation to chronic and repeated stress. This review will summarize recent findings on the molecular biology of the OFQ/N precursor and relate it to possible physiological functions of this newly discovered neuropeptide system.     

Identification of a cDNA encoding a novel small secretory protein,neurosecretory protein GL,in the chicken hypothalamic infundibulum

To find novel neuropeptide and/or peptide hormone precursors in the avian brain, we performed a cDNA subtractive screen of the chicken hypothalamic infundibulum, which contains one of the feeding and neuroendocrine centers. After sequencing 596 clones, we identified a novel cDNA encoding a previously unknown protein. The deduced precursor protein consisted of 182 amino acid residues, including one putative small secretory protein of 80 amino acid residues. This small protein was flanked at the N-terminus by a signal peptide and at the C-terminus by a glycine amidation signal and a dibasic amino acid cleavage site. Because the predicted C-terminal amino acids of the small protein were Gly-Leu-NH₂, the small protein was named neurosecretory protein GL (NPGL). Quantitative RT-PCR analysis demonstrated specific expression of the NPGL precursor mRNA in the hypothalamic infundibulum. Furthermore, the mRNA levels in the hypothalamic infundibulum increased during post-hatching development. In situ hybridization analysis showed that the cells containing the NPGL precursor mRNA were localized in the medial mammillary nucleus and infundibular nucleus within the hypothalamic infundibulum of 8- and 15-day-old chicks. Subcutaneous infusion of NPGL in chicks increased body weight gain without affecting food intake. To our knowledge, this is the first report to describe the identification and localization of the NPGL precursor mRNA and the function of its translated product in animals. Our findings indicate that NPGL may participate in the growth process in chicks.     

Neuropeptide S as a novel arousal promoting peptide transmitter

Behavioral arousal requires integration of multiple neurotransmitter and neuromodulatory systems. Identifying these systems is the key to not only a better understanding of the neurobiology of sleep/wakefulness but may also lead to the discovery of potential therapeutic targets for various sleep disorders. We review here a novel arousal promoting neuropeptide system, neuropeptide S (NPS) and its receptor. Pharmacologically, NPS activates NPS receptors at low nanomolar concentration to increase concentrations of intracellular Ca(2+). Anatomically, both NPS precursor and receptor mRNAs are found predominately in the central nervous system. NPS precursor mRNA is expressed only in several discrete regions located mainly in the brainstem. In particular, it is highly expressed in a previously undescribed group of neurons localized between locus coeruleus and Barrington's nucleus. NPS receptor mRNA is widely distributed in many brain areas with high expression levels in cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala and multiple midline thalamic nuclei. Functionally, central administration of NPS increases locomotor activity in both na?ve and habituated mice. It also significantly increases wakefulness and decreases paradoxical (rapid eye movement) sleep and slow wave sleep in rats. In addition, NPS suppresses anxiety-like behaviors in mice exposed to different behavioral paradigms measuring responses to novelty or stress. These studies indicate that the NPS system is a newly discovered transmitter system that regulates vigilance and emotional states. NPS appears to possess a unique pharmacological profile in producing both anxiolytic-like and hypervigilant effects.     

Transgenic plums (Prunus domestica L.) express the plum pox virus coat protein gene

Summary Plum hypocotyl slices were transformed with the coat protein (CP) gene of plum pox virus (PPV-CP) following cocultivation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens containing the plasmid pGA482GG/PPVCP-33. This binary vector carries the PPV-CP gene construct, as well as the chimeric neomycin phosphotransferase and -glucuronidase genes. Integration and expression of the transferred genes into regenerated plum plants was verified through kan resistance, GUS assays, and PCR amplification of the PPV-CP gene. Twenty-two transgenic clones were identified from approximately 1800 hypocotyl slices. DNA, mRNA, and protein analyses of five transgenic plants confirmed the integration of the engineered CP gene, the accumulation of CP mRNA and of PPV-CP-immunoreactive protein. CP mRNA levels ranged from high to undetectable levels, apparently correlated with gene structure, as indicated by DNA blot analysis. Western analysis showed that transgenic plants produced amounts of CP which generally correlated with amounts of detected mRNA.