Biophysical and human influences on plant species richness in grasslands: Comparing variegated landscapes in subtropical and temperate regions

A survey of grassy woodlands in the Queensland subtropics was conducted, recording herbaceous species richness at 212 sites on three properties (2756 ha). A range of habitats typical of cattle grazing enterprises was sampled and site variables included lithology, slope position, tree density, soil disturbance, soil enrichment and grazing. Results were compared with a previously published survey of temperate grasslands. Lithology, slope position and tree density had relatively minor effects on plant species richness, although in both surveys there was some evidence of lower species richness on the more fertile substrates. Soil disturbance and soil enrichment significantly reduced the richness of native species in both surveys, while exotic species were insensitive (subtropics) or increased (temperate) with disturbance. Rare native species were highly sensitive to disturbances, including grazing, in the temperate study. Although some trends were similar for rare species in the subtropics, the results were not significant and there were complex interactions between grazing, lithology and slope position. Grazing did not have a negative effect on native species richness, except in the closely grazed patches within pastures, and then only on the most intensively developed property. At the scale recorded (30 m²), the native pastures, roadsides and stock routes sampled in the subtropics appear to be among the most species‐rich grasslands ever reported, both nationally and globally. Native species richness was approximately 50% higher than the temperate survey figures across all the comparable habitats. While there are no clear reasons for this result, potential explanations are proposed.     

Floristic diversity and the richness of locally endangered plant species of semi-natural grasslands under different management practices,southern Kyushu,Japan

Background: The rapid decline of semi-natural grasslands in Japan threatens many relic and endemic plant species. There is insufficient knowledge on how the impacts of land-use changes and management of grasslands have been affecting grassland ecosystems and what conservation measures may be taken to conserve as much of the existing plant diversity as possible.

Aim: We assessed the existing management regimes for their suitability for conserving Red Data Book (RDB) species.

Methods: We conducted our study in four districts of Kushima, Kyushu, south-west Japan, with different land-use histories. We compared species richness, plant density and abundance in six grassland types: regularly burnt, regularly mown, paddy levee, roadside, landslip and wetland communities in a total of 289 1 m x 1 m quadrats, recorded in172 grassland patches. Species richness plant density and abundance were analysed with special reference to RDB species under different land use history.

Results: Species richness of grasslands did not differ across different land use histories, yet our analysis showed that the reduced area of grasslands markedly affected the density of RDB species. Grassland types differed in their ability to support RDB species: regularly burnt grasslands were the richest in RDB species and poorest in alien species, followed by regularly mown grasslands, paddy levees, landslip, wetland and roadside communities.

Conclusions: Traditional management regimes, such as regular burning or mowing of grasslands have the best potential for conserving RDB species, and thus should be part of conservation management practices of semi-natural grasslands.     

Functional rarity of plants in German hay meadows — Patterns on the species level and mismatches with community species richness

Functional rarity (FR) — a feature combining a species'' rarity with the distinctiveness of its traits — is a promising tool to better understand the ecological importance of rare species and consequently to protect functional diversity more efficiently. However, we lack a systematic understanding of FR on both the species level (which species are functionally rare and why) and the community level (how is FR associated with biodiversity and environmental conditions). Here, we quantify FR for 218 plant species from German hay meadows on a local, regional, and national scale by combining data from 6500 vegetation relevés and 15 ecologically relevant traits. We investigate the association between rarity and trait distinctiveness on different spatial scales via correlation measures and show which traits lead to low or high trait distinctiveness via distance‐based redundancy analysis. We test how species richness and FR are correlated, and use boosted regression trees to determine environmental conditions that are driving species richness and FR. On the local scale, only rare species showed high trait distinctiveness while on larger spatial scales rare and common species showed high trait distinctiveness. As infrequent trait attributes (e.g., legumes, low clonality) led to higher trait distinctiveness, we argue that functionally rare species are either specialists or transients. While specialists occupy a particular niche in hay meadows leading to lower rarity on larger spatial scales, transients display distinct but maladaptive traits resulting in high rarity across all spatial scales. More functionally rare species than expected by chance occurred in species‐poor communities indicating that they prefer environmental conditions differing from characteristic conditions of species‐rich hay meadows. Finally, we argue that functionally rare species are not necessarily relevant for nature conservation because many were transients from surrounding habitats. However, FR can facilitate our understanding of why species are rare in a habitat and under which conditions these species occur.     

Patterns of fish species richness in China's lakes

Aim To document the patterns of fish species richness and their possible causes in China's lakes at regional and national scales. Location Lakes across China. Methods We compiled data of fish species richness, limnological characteristics and climatic variables for 109 lakes across five regions of China: East region, Northeast region, Southwest region, North‐Northwest region, and the Tibetan Plateau. Correlation analyses, regression models and a general linear model were used to explore the patterns of fish species richness. Results At the national scale, lake altitude, energy availability (potential evapotranspiration, PET) and lake area explained 79.6% of the total variation of the lake fish species richness. The determinants of the fish richness pattern varied among physiographic regions. Lake area was the strongest predictor of fish species richness in the East and Southwest lakes, accounting for 22.2% and 82.9% of the variation, respectively. Annual PET explained 68.7% of the variation of fish richness in the Northeast lakes. Maximum depth, mineralization degree, and lake area explained 45.5% of the fish variation in the lakes of the North‐Northwest region. On the Tibetan Plateau, lake altitude was the first predictor variable, interpreting 32.2% of the variation. Main conclusions Lake altitude was the most important factor explaining the variation of fish species richness across China's lakes, and accounted for 74.5% of the variation. This may stem in part from the fact that the lakes investigated in our study span the largest altitudinal range anywhere in the world. The effects of the lake altitude on fish species richness can be separated into direct and indirect aspects due to its collinearity with PET. We also found that the fish diversity and its determinants were scale‐dependent. Fish species richness was probably energy‐determined in the cold region, while it was best predicted by the lake area in the relatively geologically old region. The independent variables we used only explained a small fraction of the variations in the lake fish species richness in East China and the Tibetan Plateau, which may be due to the effects of human activity and historical events, respectively.     

美国对入侵种的管理对策

外来种入侵是产生当前世界生物多样性危机的重要原因之一。目前外来种入侵问题已经引起人们的普遍关注。1999年2月美国联邦政府发布总统令,号召联邦政府机构执行人员防止外来入侵种所造成的严重环境威胁,指示有关职能部门行使职权阻止引入入侵种并且恢复本地种。总统令指示建立一个入侵物种理事会,并就理事会、联邦机构的职责做了相应界定。美国农业部等部门支持的入侵植物管理国家策略项目,提出了针对入侵种的三项国家目标一入侵种的预防、控制和本地种的恢复。国家管理策略的制定不同层次的人们提供了合作、教育和研究的机遇。美国政府部门以及有关社会团体已经就外来种入侵危害防范积极展开行动,包括制定标准防止入侵种进入,控制、根除入侵种,向民众进行有关外来种入侵的教育,增加财政年度预算等等。     

Do human activities raise species richness? Contrasting patterns in United States plants and fishes

In a given area, human activities usually cause the extinction of native species and the establishment of non‐native species. A key conservation issue is whether non‐native establishment tends to outpace native species extinction to produce a net gain in species richness. To determine this, empirical data must be accumulated at various scales. I show that, within the United States, the number of established non‐native plant species per state does tend to outpace the number of extinct and threatened species per state. The net gain in plant species is strongly and positively correlated with human population density. Continuation of this trend predicts substantial gains in net plant species richness for all states in the United States as human population grows. This contrasts with freshwater fishes, where most states show a net loss of species diversity as extinct and threatened species exceed established non‐native species. Changes in fish diversity do not correlate strongly with human population or non‐native species but are largely driven by the decline of native fish species.     

Changes in plant species richness and productivity in response to decreased nitrogen inputs in grassland in southern England

Biomass production and plant species diversity in grassland in southern England was monitored before and after a change from conventional to organic farming. Our 18-year study, part of the UK's Environmental Change Network long-term monitoring programme, showed that the cessation of artificial fertiliser use on grassland after conversion to organic farming resulted in a decrease in biomass production and an increase in plant species richness. Grassland productivity decreased immediately after fertiliser application ceased, and after two years the annual total biomass production had fallen by over 50%. In the subsequent decade, total annual grassland productivity did not change significantly, and yields reached 31–66% of the levels recorded pre-management change. Plant species richness that had remained stable during the first 5 years of our study under conventional farming, increased by 300% over the following 13 years under organic farm management. We suggest that the change in productivity is due to the altered composition of species within the plots. In the first few years after the change in farming practice, high yielding, nitrogen-loving plants were outcompeted by lower yielding grasses and forbs, and these species remained in the plots in the following years. This study shows that grassland can be converted from an environment lacking in plant species diversity to a relatively species-rich pasture within 10–15 years, simply by stopping or suspending nitrogen additions. We demonstrate that the trade-off for increasing species richness is a decrease in productivity. Grassland in the UK is often not only managed from a conservation perspective, but to also produce a profitable yield. By considering the species composition and encouraging specific beneficial species such as legumes, it may be possible to improve biomass productivity and reduce the trade-off.     

Effects of plant diversity on invasion of weed species in experimental pasture communities

Studies have shown that weed invasion into grasslands may be suppressed if the resident plant community is sufficiently diverse. The objective of this study was to determine whether increased forage plant diversity in grazed pasture communities might be associated with reduced weed abundance both in the aboveground vegetation and soil seed bank. Data were collected from a pasture experiment established in 1994 in Missouri, USA. The experiment consisted of 15 m×15 m plots sown with Festuca arundinacea Schreb. or Bromus inermis Leysser as a base species in mixtures of 1, 2, 3, 6, or 8 forage species. The plots were grazed by cattle during each growing season from 1998 to 2002. Aboveground plant species composition in each plot was measured using a point step method. Soil cores were collected in 1999 and 2002, and the species composition of germinable weed seeds in plots were evaluated by identifying seedlings as they germinated over an 8-week period. Species diversity was measured using several indices: species richness (S), Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H^′), and forage species evenness (J). Aboveground weed abundance in plots was unrelated to forage species richness (S), but weed abundance declined as the evenness (J) of resident forage species increased in mixtures. The species composition of mixtures may have affected weed abundance. Weeds both in the soil seed bank and aboveground vegetation were less abundant in mixtures that contained F. arundinacea compared with mixtures that contained B. inermis. Although variables like forage plant productivity may also suppress weed abundance in pastures, our results suggest that maintaining an evenly distributed mixture of forage species may help suppress weeds as well.

Zusammenfassung

Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, dass die Unkrautinvasion in Grünländer unterdrückt sein kann, wenn die ansässige Pflanzengemeinschaft ausreichend divers ist. Die Zielsetzung dieser Untersuchung war es zu bestimmen, ob eine erhöhte Futterpflanzendiversität in beweideten Grünlandgemeinschaften mit einer verringerten Unkrautabundanz sowohl bei der oberirdischen Vegetation als auch in der Bodensamenbank verbunden sein kann. Die Daten wurden in einem Weidelandexperiment gesammelt, das 1994 in Missouri, USA, etabliert wurde. Das Experiment bestand aus 15 m×15 m Probeflächen, die mit Festuca arundinacea Schreb. oder Bromus inermis Leysser als Basisarten in Mischungen von 1, 2, 3, 6 oder 8 Futterarten eingesät waren. Die Probeflächen wurden während jeder Wachstumssaison von 1998 bis 2002 stark mit Vieh beweidet. Die oberirdische Pflanzenartenzusammensetzung wurde in jeder Fläche mit einer Punktstopmethode gemessen. Bodenproben wurden 1999 und 2002 gesammelt und die Artenzusammensetzung der keimfähigen Unkrautsamen wurde in den Probeflächen bewertet, indem die Keimlinge identifiziert wurden, die in einer 8-wöchigen Periode keimten. Die Artendiversität wurde unter Verwendung verschiedener Indizes gemessen: Artenreichtum (S), Shannon–Wiener-Diversitätsindex (H^′) und Futterarten-Äquitabilität (J). Die oberirdische Unkrautartenabundanz in den Probeflächen stand in keiner Beziehung zum Futterartenreichtum (S), aber die Unkrautabundanz nahm ab, wenn die Äquitabilität (J) der ansässigen Futterarten in den Mischungen zunahm. Die Artenzusammensetzung der Mischungen könnte die Unkrautabundanz beeinflusst haben. Sowohl die Unkräuter in der Bodensamenbank, als auch in der oberirdischen Vegetation waren weniger abundant in Mischungen, die F. arundinacea enthielten, im Vergleich zu denen, die B. inermis enthielten. Obgleich Variablen wie die Futterpflanzenproduktivität möglicherweise ebenfalls die Unkrautabundanz im Weideland unterdrücken, lassen unsere Ergebnisse vermuten, dass die Aufrechterhaltung einer gleichmäßigen Mischung von Futterarten ebenfalls helfen kann, die Unkräuter zu unterdrücken.     

Patterns of plant species richness in relation to different environments: An appraisal

Abstract. We review patterns of plant species richness with respect to variables related to resource availability and variables that have direct physiological impact on plant growth or resource availability. This review suggests that there are a variety of patterns of species richness along environmental gradients reported in the literature. However, part of this diversity may be explained by the different types and lengths of gradients studied, and by the limited analysis applied to the data. To advance in understanding species richness patterns along environmental gradients, we emphasise the importance of: (1) using variables that are related to the growth of plants (latitudinal and altitudinal gradients have no direct process impact on plant growth); (2) using multivariate gradients, not single variables; (3) comparing patterns for different life forms; and (4) testing for different shapes in the species richness response (not only linear) and for interaction between variables.     

放牧干扰下高寒草甸物种和生活型丰富度与地上及地下生物量的关系

明晰放牧干扰下高寒草甸植物丰富度与生物量的相关关系,为草地植物不同生长时期生物量的预测提供依据。设置6个放牧强度样地,连续3a放牧,2014年进行3个季节(6月、8月、10月)的植物丰富度和地上、地下生物量调查,对比分析放牧干扰下物种和生活型丰富度(生活型的种类)分别与地上、地下生物量的相关关系。结果表明:(1)物种和生活型丰富度与地上生物量均受放牧强度的显著影响,物种丰富度仅在8月与放牧强度显著负相关,生活型丰富度在10月随放牧强度单峰变化,地上生物量在不同季节均与放牧强度显著负相关,而地下生物量与放牧强度无关。(2)物种丰富度与地上和地下生物量均受季节的显著影响,物种丰富度和地上生物量仅在低强度放牧区随季节呈单峰变化,地下生物量在中等强度放牧区随季节呈单峰变化;生活型丰富度与季节无关。(3)放牧干扰前物种和生活型丰富度与地上和地下生物量均显著正相关。3a放牧后仅在8月,物种丰富度只与地上生物量显著正相关,生活型丰富度与地上和地下生物量均显著正相关。(4)对于不同放牧强度,物种丰富度仅在低强度放牧区与地上生物量显著正相关,而生活型丰富度在所有放牧强度区均与地上生物量显著正相关。综上所述,放牧干扰扰乱了高寒草甸丰富度与生物量之间的关系,尤其影响了物种丰富度与地下生物量之间的相关关系。生活型丰富度与地上生物量之间的显著关系不受放牧强度干扰,使生活型丰富度在预测生物量方面表现出优势。     

Distribution of vascular plant species richness and endemic richness along the Himalayan elevation gradient in Nepal

Aim Species richness and endemic richness vary along elevation gradients, but not necessarily in the same way. This study tests if the maxima in gamma diversity for flowering plants and the endemic subset of these plants are coherent or not. Location The study was conducted in Nepal, between 1000 and 5000 m a.s.l. Methods We used published data on distribution and elevational ranges of the Nepalese flora to interpolate presence between maximum and minimum elevations. Correlation, regression and graphical analyses were used to evaluate the diversity pattern between 1000 and 5000 m a.s.l. Results The interval of maximum species endemic to Nepal or the Himalayas (3800–4200 m) is above the interval of maximum richness (1500–2500 m). The exact location of maximum species density is uncertain and its accuracy depends on ecologically sound estimates of area in the elevation zones. There is no positive statistically significant correlation between log‐area and richness (total or endemic). Total richness is positively correlated with log‐area‐adjusted, i.e. estimated area adjusted for the degree of topographic heterogeneity. The proportion of endemic species increases steadily from low to high elevations. The peak in endemism (c. 4000 m) corresponds to the start of a rapid decrease in species richness above 4000 m. This may relate to the last glacial maximum (equilibrium line at c. 4000 m) that penetrated down to 2500–3000 m. This dynamic hard boundary may have caused an increase in the extinction rate above 4000 m, and enhanced the probability of isolation and facilitated speciation of neoendemics, especially among genera with a high proportion of polyploids. Main conclusions The results reject the idea of corresponding maxima in endemic species and species richness in the lowlands tentatively deduced from Stevens’ elevational Rapoport effect. They confirm predictions based on hard boundary theory, but hard‐boundaries should be viewed as dynamic rather than static when broad‐scale biogeographical patterns with a historical component are being interpreted.     

稀有种和常见种对植物群落物种丰富度格局的相对贡献

物种丰富度格局的形成不仅依赖于群落的构建过程, 同样也依赖于群落中的物种组成(如稀有种和常见种)。本文以黄土高原子午岭林区的辽东栎(Quercus wutaishanica)林为研究对象, 根据频度大小对物种进行排序, 形成稀有-常见种和常见-稀有种两条物种序列, 通过逐一添加(去除)物种, 分析引起的总体物种丰富度及其成分(α多样性和β多样性)的变化, 确定稀有种和常见种对物种丰富度格局的相对贡献。结果表明: (1)常见-稀有种序列与群落总体物种丰富度的相关性呈先剧增后平稳的对数增长曲线, 而稀有-常见种序列与群落总体的相关性与前者刚好相反, 呈先平稳后剧增的指数增长曲线; (2) α多样性在常见-稀有种序列中呈明显的对数变化曲线, 而在稀有-常见种序列中呈指数增长曲线; (3)与α多样性变化相反, β多样性在常见-稀有种序列中随物种的进入先迅速降低后逐渐平稳, 而在稀有-常见种序列中先平稳后急剧降低。可以看出, 常见种不仅主导群落的总体物种丰富度格局, 同时也是α多样性和β多样性格局的重要贡献者。因此, 常见种是群落物种丰富度格局的指示者, 也应该是优先保护的物种。     

The role of regional and local scale predictors for plant species richness in Mediterranean forests

Abstract

Both local and regional predictors play a role in determining plant community structure and composition. Climate, soil features as well as different local history and management affect forest understorey and tree species composition, but to date their specific role is relatively unknown. Few studies have addressed the importance of these predictors, especially in the Mediterranean area, where environmental conditions and human impacts have generated heterogeneous forest communities. In this study, the relationships between environmental variables and species richness of different groups of vascular plants (vascular species, woody species and open habitat species) and bryophytes were investigated in Tuscan forests. A total of 37 environmental variables were used by generalised linear model fitting in order to find parsimonious sub-sets of environmental factors (predictors) that are able to explain species diversity patterns at the local scale. Moreover, the role of regional and local variable groups on species richness of the considered plant groups was estimated by using the variance partitioning approach. We found that local variables, such as forest management and structure, explained more variance than regional variables for total species richness, open habitat species richness and bryophyte species richness. On the other hand, regional variables (such as elevation) played a central role for woody species richness.     

Patterns of ant species richness along elevational gradients in an arid ecosystem

Aim In this study, we examine patterns of local and regional ant species richness along three elevational gradients in an arid ecosystem. In addition, we test the hypothesis that changes in ant species richness with elevation are related to elevation‐dependent changes in climate and available area. Location Spring Mountains, Nevada, U.S.A. Methods We used pitfall traps placed at each 100‐m elevational band in three canyons in the Spring Mountains. We compiled climate data from 68 nearby weather stations. We used multiple regression analysis to examine the effects of annual precipitation, average July precipitation, and maximum and minimum July temperature on ant species richness at each elevational band. Results We found that patterns of local ant species richness differed among the three gradients we sampled. Ant species richness increased linearly with elevation along two transects and peaked at mid‐elevation along a third transect. This suggests that patterns of species richness based on data from single transects may not generalize to larger spatial scales. Cluster analysis of community similarity revealed a high‐elevation species assemblage largely distinct from that of lower elevations. Major changes in the identity of ant species present along elevational gradients tended to coincide with changes in the dominant vegetation. Regional species richness, defined here as the total number of unique species within an elevational band in all three gradients combined, tended to increase with increasing elevation. Available area decreased with increasing elevation. Area was therefore correlated negatively with ant species richness and did not explain elevational patterns of ant species richness in the Spring Mountains. Mean July maximum and minimum temperature, July precipitation and annual precipitation combined to explain 80% of the variation in ant species richness. Main conclusions Our results suggest that in arid ecosystems, species richness for some taxa may be highest at high elevations, where lower temperatures and higher precipitation may support higher levels of primary production and cause lower levels of physiological stress.