How efficiently do corn‐ and soybean‐based cropping systems use water? A systems modeling analysis

Agricultural systems are being challenged to decrease water use and increase production while climate becomes more variable and the world's population grows. Low water use efficiency is traditionally characterized by high water use relative to low grain production and usually occurs under dry conditions. However, when a cropping system fails to take advantage of available water during wet conditions, this is also an inefficiency and is often detrimental to the environment. Here, we provide a systems‐level definition of water use efficiency (sWUE) that addresses both production and environmental quality goals through incorporating all major system water losses (evapotranspiration, drainage, and runoff). We extensively calibrated and tested the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) using 6 years of continuous crop and soil measurements in corn‐ and soybean‐based cropping systems in central Iowa, USA. We then used the model to determine water use, loss, and grain production in each system and calculated sWUE in years that experienced drought, flood, or historically average precipitation. Systems water use efficiency was found to be greatest during years with average precipitation. Simulation analysis using 28 years of historical precipitation data, plus the same dataset with ± 15% variation in daily precipitation, showed that in this region, 430 mm of seasonal (planting to harvesting) rainfall resulted in the optimum sWUE for corn, and 317 mm for soybean. Above these precipitation levels, the corn and soybean yields did not increase further, but the water loss from the system via runoff and drainage increased substantially, leading to a high likelihood of soil, nutrient, and pesticide movement from the field to waterways. As the Midwestern United States is predicted to experience more frequent drought and flood, inefficiency of cropping systems water use will also increase. This work provides a framework to concurrently evaluate production and environmental performance of cropping systems.     

Photosynthetic response to precipitation/rainfall in predominant tree (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ulmus pumila</Emphasis>) seedlings in Hunshandak Sandland,China

The responses of gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence of field-growing Ulmus pumila seedlings to changes in simulated precipitation were studied in Hunshandak Sandland, China. Leaf water potential (Ψ_wp), net photosynthetic rate (P _N), stomatal conductance (g _s), and transpiration rate (E) were significantly increased with enhancement of precipitation from 0 to 20 mm (p<0.01), indicating stomatal limitation of U. pumila seedlings that could be avoided when soil water was abundant. However, P _N changed slightly when precipitation exceeded 20 mm (p>0.05), indicating more precipitation than 20 mm had no significant effects on photosynthesis. Maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem 2, PS 2 (F_v/F_m) increased from 0.53 to 0.78 when rainfall increased from 0 to 10 mm, and F_v/F_m maintained a steady state level when rainfall was more than 10 mm. Water use efficiency (WUE) decreased significantly (from 78–95 to 23–27 μmol mol⁻¹) with enhancement of rainfalls. P _N showed significant linear correlations with both g _s and Ψ_wp (p<0.0001), which implied that leaf water status influenced gas exchange of U. pumila seedlings. The 20-mm precipitation (soil water content at about 15 %, v/v) might be enough for the growth of elm seedlings. When soil water content (SWC) reached 10 %, down regulation of PS2 photochemical efficiency could be avoided, but stomatal limitation to photosynthesis remained. When SWC exceeded 15 %, stomatal limitation to photosynthesis could be avoided, indicating elm seedlings might tolerate moderate drought.     

Biomass accumulation and allocation in soybean associated with genotypic differences in tolerance of nitrogen fixation to water deficits

Nitrogen fixation in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) is more sensitive to water deficits than many physiological processes and may therefore limit yield under nonirrigated conditions. Tolerance of nitrogen fixation to water deficits has been observed in the cultivar Jackson, however, the physiological basis for this is unclear. It was hypothesized that genotypes that could continue biomass production on limited soil water would prolong nitrogen fixation by continued photosynthate allocation to nodules. An initial greenhouse experiment compared biomass and N accumulation in six genotypes over an 8 d water deficit. Low stress intensity minimized genotypic expression of water-deficit tolerance; nevertheless, Jackson was clearly one of the most tolerant genotypes. In a second experiment, Jackson was compared to SCE82-303 at more severe stress levels. Biomass and N accumulation continued during water deficits for Jackson but ceased in SCE82-303. Individual nodule mass tended to increase during water deficits in Jackson and tended to decrease in SCE82-303, indicating greater allocation of photosynthate to Jackson's nodules in response to water deficits. Biomass accumulation of Jackson was contrasted with the USDA plant introduction (PI) 416937, which also has demonstrated tolerance to water deficits. For water-deficit treatments, total biomass accumulation was negligible for PI416937, but biomass accumulation continued at approximately 64% of the control treatment for Jackson. Transpirational losses for Jackson and PI416937 were approximately the same for the water-deficit treatment, indicating that Jackson had higher water use efficiency (WUE). Isotopic discrimination of ¹³C relative to¹² C also indicated that Jackson had superior WUE during water deficits. Carbon-14 allocation in Jackson was compared to KS4895, a cultivar that was identified as sensitive to water deficits in an initial experiment. The comparison of water-deficit treatments of Jackson with KS4895 indicated that Jackson exported significantly greater amounts of¹⁴ C from labeled leaves and allocated approximately four times greater amounts of ¹⁴C per g of nodule. Results indicated that Jackson's sustained biomass production during water deficits resulted in the continued allocation of photosynthate to nodules and prolonged nitrogenase activity.     

土壤大气湿度组合对玉米生长和WUE效应研究

采用人工气候生长箱盆栽试验,模拟土壤和大气湿度不同组合处理,发现土壤干旱和大气干旱显著抑制玉米生长。大气湿度提高,在一定程度能改善作物的水分状况,降低蒸腾,解除土壤干旱危害,产生生长和生理补偿效应,明显提高水分利用效率。     

黄土高原常用造林树种水分利用特征

在适宜土壤水分、中度干旱和严重干旱3种土壤水分条件下研究了黄土高原干旱、半干旱地区常用的人工造林树种84k杨树（Populus spp．）、刺槐（Robinia pseudoacacia）、沙棘（Hippophae rhamnoides）和油松（Pinus tabulaeformis）苗木生长及水分利用特征。结果显示,干旱胁迫使各树种成活率、生长速率、光合速率均显著下降;84k杨树和刺槐单叶水分利用率（WUE）在适宜水分下最高,沙棘的在中度干旱下最高;在中度干旱下,4个树种的总水分利用率最高。而严重干旱下最低。无论干旱与否,4个树种中沙棘生长速率最高。在中度干旱条件下,4个树种均可良好生长,而严重干旱下生长均受到显著抑制,其中84k杨树受影响最大;4个树种中沙棘和油松的耐旱性较强,同时油松在各种土壤水分下其生长速度和干物质生产均显著低于其它3个树种;刺槐和84k杨树的耗水量、生物量及水分利用率在3种土壤水分下均显著高于沙棘和油松,84k杨树和刺槐均属于高耗水树种;研究结果表明。84k杨树和刺槐不适宜大面积栽植在黄土高原缺水地区,仅适合栽植在阴坡、沟道等适宜水分条件下。沙棘和油松则适宜栽植在土壤水分较低的地区,如阳坡、峁顶等立地条件上。     

水分亏缺下紫花苜蓿和高粱根系水力学导度 与水分利用效率的关系

利用聚乙二醇(PEG-6000)模拟水分亏缺条件(胁迫水势-0.2MPa,胁迫48h),研究了变水条件下紫花苜蓿(品种:阿尔冈金和陇东)和高粱(品种:抗四)根系水力学导度(Lp_r)、根系活力、根叶相对含水量、水分利用效率等参数的动态变化,以期进一步明确植物水分吸收及散失过程调控的生理生态学基础。结果表明:水分亏缺限制了紫花苜蓿和高粱根系吸水,表现在Lp_r的下降和根系活力的降低;继而调控了其地上部反应,引起气孔导度、光合速率、叶片相对含水量和蒸腾速率等的下降,但限制性的提高了其水分利用效率,尤其在胁迫初期。恢复到正常供水条件后,Lp_r、根系活性、气孔导度等水分利用参数逐渐部分或完全恢复到了胁迫前水平,但恢复程度存在种间和品种间差异,并且根系吸水能力的恢复对于是植株地上部生长状态的恢复至关重要,尤其是水分恢复初期。紫花苜蓿根系中检测到水通道蛋白(AQPs)的存在,水分亏缺对紫花苜蓿Lp_r的影响认为主要是通过影响AQPs的活性实现的。比较紫花苜蓿和高粱水分吸收与利用状况在变水条件下的动态变化,认为紫花苜蓿幼苗对干旱逆境的适应能力相对弱于高粱,品种间陇东适应能力更强。     

Improving water use in crop production

Globally, agriculture accounts for 80-90% of all freshwater used by humans, and most of that is in crop production. In many areas, this water use is unsustainable; water supplies are also under pressure from other users and are being affected by climate change. Much effort is being made to reduce water use by crops and produce 'more crop per drop'. This paper examines water use by crops, taking particularly a physiological viewpoint, examining the underlying relationships between carbon uptake, growth and water loss. Key examples of recent progress in both assessing and improving crop water productivity are described. It is clear that improvements in both agronomic and physiological understanding have led to recent increases in water productivity in some crops. We believe that there is substantial potential for further improvements owing to the progress in understanding the physiological responses of plants to water supply, and there is considerable promise within the latest molecular genetic approaches, if linked to the appropriate environmental physiology. We conclude that the interactions between plant and environment require a team approach looking across the disciplines from genes to plants to crops in their particular environments to deliver improved water productivity and contribute to sustainability.     

模拟喀斯特不同土壤生境下黑麦草对水分胁迫的生长和光合生理响应

以多年生草本黑麦草为对象,模拟喀斯特生境土壤特征设置浅而宽(Shallow and wide, SW:30×30×5 cm³)和深而窄(Deep and narrow, DN:10×10×45 cm³)两种土壤容器,以正常降水量为对照供水(W100%),设减水50%(W50%)和减水70%(W30%)共3种水分处理进行盆栽实验,探究了两种不同土壤生境中土壤水分变化对黑麦草生长及光合生理的影响,以进一步理解喀斯特地区植物的适应对策。结果显示:(1)SW生境对水分变化敏感,随供水减少土壤含水量显著下降。轻度减水下植物叶面积增大,光合速率提高,地上部分生长得到促进,但水分严重减少对其生长和光合生理有抑制作用,但地上质量分数和水分利用效率却显著升高;(2)DN生境保水能力较好,随供水减少土壤水分含量下降较为平缓。叶片相对含水量、气孔导度和比叶面积在各水分处理之间差异不显著,但严重减水条件下总生物量、地上质量分数和水分利用效率均有回升。研究表明:浅而宽生境中植物倾向于通过提高地上部分的生长,保持较高的光合速率,并向地上部分分配较多生物量来应对水分胁迫;...     

植物表皮蜡质与抗旱及其分子生物学

植物表皮蜡质是覆盖在植物最外层的一类有机混合物总称,它是植物自我防护的最后一道屏障,在植物生长发育过程中起重要作用。文章就植物表皮蜡质的成分、转运、晶体的形成和发育、形态结构以及环境变化对表皮蜡质的影响,特别是在蜡质与角质蒸腾、叶片水分利用效率和产量的关系以及蜡质的生理作用和合成过程的分子生物学研究进展方面做了系统综述,并对植物蜡质研究中存在的问题做了探讨。     

土壤水分梯度对白三叶(Trifolium repens)光合作用和根系分布的影响

通过对两个品种白三叶Trifolium repens cv.Haifa(海发)和Trifolium repens cv.Rivendel(瑞文德)盆栽试验,模拟3种不同的土壤水分状况(无水分胁迫:保持植株良好的水分供应;轻度胁迫:表层0～20cm土壤处于干旱状态;重度胁迫:表层0～20cm土壤处于极干旱状态,20～40cm土壤处于干旱状态)对白三叶光合作用和根系生长的影响.结果表明,当植株未遭受水分胁迫时,两个品种白三叶的光合作用和根系生长状况没有明显差异;当表层0～20cm处于干旱状态时,'海发'在处理后期的净光合速率和水分利用效率升高,根系生长量增大,表现出促进作用,'瑞文德'受到的影响不显著;当表层0～20cm处于极干旱、20～40cm处于干旱状态时,'海发'在处理前期受到轻微影响,随后恢复正常状态,'瑞文德'则受到较严重的影响.随着干旱程度的加深和时间的延长,白三叶的根冠比逐渐增大.与'瑞文德'相比,在相同时期相同胁迫程度下,'海发'的根冠比没有显著差异,但深根数量大大超过'瑞文德',因而,'海发'的耐旱能力强于'瑞文德'.     

Environmental controls on water use efficiency during severe drought in an Ozark Forest in Missouri,USA

To accurately predict ecosystem responses induced by climate warming at local‐to‐global scales, models are in need of more precise knowledge of response during periods of environmental stress such as drought. In this paper, we studied environmental control of canopy‐level water use efficiency (WUE) during drought at an eddy flux site in an oak‐hickory forest in central Missouri, USA. Two consecutive severe droughts in the summers of 2006 and 2007 afforded coverage of a broad range of environmental conditions. We stratified data to obtain subranges that minimized cross‐correlations among putative WUE‐controlling factors. Our results showed that WUE was subject to control by atmospheric saturation deficit (ASD), soil water potential (SWP) and the ratio of diffuse to total photosynthetically active radiation (I_f/I_t). Generally, WUE was found to scale with 1/(ASD)^0.5, consistent with predictions from stomatal optimization theory. In contrast, SWP and I_f/I_t were related to WUE in a linear fashion. ASD was better correlated with WUE than either of the other two factors. It was also observed that the relationship between WUE and any single controlling factor was subject to influence of the other two. One such example was an opposite response of WUE to SWP between low and high ASD values, suggesting a breakdown of stomatal optimality under severe environmental stresses and a shift from optimal stomatal regulation to nonstomatal regulation at leaf scale. We have demonstrated that different data handling (stratified vs. nonstratified) or selection (hourly vs. daily) could lead to different conclusions on the relationship between WUE and its controls. For this reason, we recommend modelers to be cautious when applying WUE‐response formulas at environmental conditions or at time scales different from those at which they are derived.     

CO2浓度升高和干旱对春小麦生长和水分利用的生态效应

利用开顶式气室对春小麦进行了一个生长季的CO2倍增盆栽实验,土壤水分控制为3个水平（分别为田间持水量（FWC）的80％,60％,40％）。结果显示,CO2倍增显提高小麦的光合速率。但在相同的CO2测定浓度下,生长在加倍CO2浓度下的小麦的光合速率比当前CO2浓度下小麦低22％。高CO2浓度显促进小麦生长,相对增加幅度在适宜水分下最大为14．8％。80％FWC水分条件下高CO2使植株的干重／高度比增加15．7％,高CO2条件下,小麦的蒸腾速率降低,累积耗水量减少,水分利用效率（WUE）提高,WUE的提高幅度在适宜水分下最大,为30％。干旱（40％FWC）使小麦地上干重和WUE在当前CO2条件下分别降低72％和19％,加倍CO2条件下降低幅度较大,分别为76％和23％。根据以上结果得出结论：（1）高CO2条件下,小麦的光合速率,地上生物量和水分利用效率提高;（2）植物长期生长于高CO2浓度导致光合能力降低;（3）高CO2对植物侧向生长的促进作用大于垂直生长,即高CO2下植株将相对粗壮;（4）高CO2对植物的生态效应依赖于土壤水分,在适宜水分下相对较大;（4）在未来高CO2条件下,干旱引起的减产和水分利用效率减低幅度将会更大。