Detection of potential microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs with a mcyB molecular marker

One of the most serious problems related to water eutrophication is the occurrence of increasingly frequent blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in freshwater ecosystems. Microcystin (MCYST) molecular markers may be used for the detection of toxic cyanobacteria, both cultivated strains and environmental samples, independently of their taxonomic category and production of the toxin at the moment of analysis. Sixty Microcystis spp. strains from 15 water reservoirs of south, southeastern and northeastern Brazil were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with oligonucleotide primers for mcyB gene of the operon that encodes a microcystin synthetase. It was found out that the presence of a unique amplified product of approximately 780 bp in 18 strains, indicated the presence of the microcystin-producing genotype. There was correspondence between the presence of the mcyB gene and microcystin determined by ELISA. Eight reservoirs contained toxic strains, two of these reservoirs being used mainly for public water supply. The coexistence of a mixture of toxic and non-toxic genotypes in populations of several reservoirs was found. Thus, it is evident that Microcystis populations present in blooms compose a mosaic, with genetically different individuals within the same population, each one, possibly, with its own tolerance to environmental factors and with distinct toxicity potential.     

Development and application of a multiplex qPCR technique to detect multiple microcystin-producing cyanobacterial genera in a Canadian freshwater lake

The emergence and persistence of complex blooms comprising multiple toxigenic cyanobacteria genera pose significant challenges for water quality management worldwide. The co-occurrence of morphologically indistinguishable toxic and non-toxic strains makes monitoring and control of these noxious organisms particularly challenging. Conventional monitoring approaches are not only incapable of discriminating toxic from non-toxic strains but also have proven to be less sensitive and specific. In this study, a multiplex quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) approach was developed and tested for its sensitivity and specificity at detecting, differentiating and estimating potentially toxic Anabaena, Microcystis and Planktothrix genotype compositions in environmental samples. The oligonucleotide primers and probes utilized were designed to target portions of the microcystin synthetase (mcy) E gene that encode synthesis of the unique 3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid (ADDA) moiety of microcystins in the three target genera. Laboratory evaluation showed the developed assay to be highly sensitive and specific at detecting and quantifying targeted genera. Indeed, the assay standards for the Anabaena, Microcystis and Planktothrix reactions attained efficiencies above 90 %, with coefficients of determination consistently above 0.99. Analysis of water samples from Missisquoi Bay, Quebec, Canada, resulted in successful detection and quantification of target toxigenic cyanobacteria even when cell numbers were below the detection limit for the conventional microscopy methods. Furthermore, toxigenic Microcystis spp. were found to be the main putative microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in the study lake. The qPCR technique developed in this study therefore offers simultaneous detection, differentiation and quantification of multiple toxigenic cyanobacteria that otherwise cannot be accomplished by current monitoring approaches.     

Use of qPCR for the study of hepatotoxic cyanobacteria population dynamics

Toxic cyanobacteria blooms are increasingly frequent and object of greater concern due to its ecological and health impacts. One important lack in the toxic cyanobacteria research field is to understand which parameters influence most and how they operate to regulate the overall levels of cyanotoxins in a body of water. MC concentration is believed to be influenced by changes in several seasonal environmental factors that influence the succession of toxic cyanobacteria. In the last years, qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) has been applied to determine the seasonal and temporal shifts in the proportions of MC-producing and non-MC-producing subpopulations by quantifying both mcy genotypes and total population numbers. We discuss the most prominent and recent studies using qPCR to address hepatotoxic cyanobacteria population dynamics and evaluate how they helped understanding the factors promoting the growth of toxic strains in situ and the succession of hepatotoxin-producing genera in natural populations.     

Sensitive and rapid detection of microcystin synthetase E Gene (mcyE) by loop-mediated isothermal amplification: A new assay for detecting the potential microcystin-producing Microcystis in the aquatic ecosystem

In order to develop a new molecular technique that has the potential to assist with monitoring and management of water bodies for potential microcystin producing cyanobacterial species that occur in mixed populations in many regions of the world, we designed a new loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay based on microcystin biosynthesis genes. Four sets of primers were designed to recognize six distinct sequences on target the mcyE gene that encodes a protein (McyE) being responsible to catalyze the addition of d-glutamate to Adda. One set (MCYE2) was selected as the most appropriate set of primers for its rapid detection. The specificity and sensitivity of the primers in the LAMP reactions for mcyE detection were determined. Two methods, namely, monitoring of turbidity and addition of calcein to the reaction tube, were used to determine negative and positive results. The results showed that target DNA was amplified and visualized by the two detection methods within 40 min at an isothermal temperature of 61 °C. For the sensitivity of LAMP, the detection limit was 8.5 pg/μl (approximately 17 pg) DNA. The eleven microcystin producing and four non-toxic cyanobacterial strains were selected for testing of specificity. The results of the amplification were positive with all microcystin-producing strains tested and not with four non-toxic strains, which showed that the primers had good levels of specificity. For testing the application of LAMP assay in the aquatic ecosystem, seven environmental samples from ponds and lakes in Ningbo City were also analyzed using the LAMP targeting the mcyE gene as well as an ELISA assay. Compared with these results of ELISA assay, LAMP assay is satisfied. All of these validated LAMP method being fast, simple and low in cost is a potentially valuable means for potential toxic of cyanobacterial blooms detection, especially for routine monitoring purposes in future.     

Potent toxins in Arctic environments – Presence of saxitoxins and an unusual microcystin variant in Arctic freshwater ecosystems

Cyanobacteria are the predominant phototrophs in freshwater ecosystems of the polar regions where they commonly form extensive benthic mats. Despite their major biological role in these ecosystems, little attention has been paid to their physiology and biochemistry. An important feature of cyanobacteria from the temperate and tropical regions is the production of a large variety of toxic secondary metabolites. In Antarctica, and more recently in the Arctic, the cyanobacterial toxins microcystin and nodularin (Antarctic only) have been detected in freshwater microbial mats. To date other cyanobacterial toxins have not been reported from these locations. Five Arctic cyanobacterial communities were screened for saxitoxin, another common cyanobacterial toxin, and microcystins using immunological, spectroscopic and molecular methods. Saxitoxin was detected for the first time in cyanobacteria from the Arctic. In addition, an unusual microcystin variant was identified using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Gene expression analyses confirmed the analytical findings, whereby parts of the sxt and mcy operon involved in saxitoxin and microcystin synthesis, were detected and sequenced in one and five of the Arctic cyanobacterial samples, respectively. The detection of these compounds in the cryosphere improves the understanding of the biogeography and distribution of toxic cyanobacteria globally. The sequences of sxt and mcy genes provided from this habitat for the first time may help to clarify the evolutionary origin of toxin production in cyanobacteria.     

Integrating phylogeny,geographic niche partitioning and secondary metabolite synthesis in bloom-forming Planktothrix

Toxic freshwater cyanobacteria form harmful algal blooms that can cause acute toxicity to humans and livestock. Globally distributed, bloom-forming cyanobacteria Planktothrix either retain or lose the mcy gene cluster (encoding the synthesis of the secondary metabolite hepatotoxin microcystin or MC), resulting in a variable spatial/temporal distribution of (non)toxic genotypes. Despite their importance to human well-being, such genotype diversity is not being mapped at scales relevant to nature. We aimed to reveal the factors influencing the dispersal of those genotypes by analyzing 138 strains (from Europe, Russia, North America and East Africa) for their (i) mcy gene cluster composition, (ii) phylogeny and adaptation to their habitat and (iii) ribosomally and nonribosomally synthesized oligopeptide products. Although all the strains from different species contained at least remnants of the mcy gene cluster, various phylogenetic lineages evolved and adapted to rather specific ecological niches (for example, through pigmentation and gas vesicle protein size). No evidence for an increased abundance of specific peptides in the absence of MC was found. MC and peptide distribution rather depended on phylogeny, ecophysiological adaptation and geographic distance. Together, these findings provide evidence that MC and peptide production are primarily related to speciation processes, while within a phylogenetic lineage the probability that strains differ in peptide composition increases with geographic distance.     

太湖水华期间有毒和无毒微囊藻种群丰度的动态变化

采用荧光定量PCR技术分析太湖3个湖区(梅梁湾、贡湖湾和湖心)水体中有毒和无毒微囊藻基因型丰度及有毒微囊藻比例的季节变化(2010年4-9月),并与环境因子进行统计分析。结果表明,有毒微囊藻基因型丰度及所占比例存在季节和空间差异:从4-8月,有毒微囊藻基因型丰度及其比例呈逐渐增加趋势,到9月开始下降;梅梁湾水体中有毒微囊藻基因型丰度及其比例高于贡湖湾和湖心。梅梁湾、贡湖湾和湖心有毒微囊藻在微囊藻种群中的比例变化范围分别为(26.2±0.8)%-(64.3±2.2)%、(4.4±0.2)%-(22.1±1.8)%和(10.4±0.4)%-(20.6±1.5)%。相关分析结果表明,有毒微囊藻丰度、总微囊藻丰度和叶绿素a浓度呈极显著正相关(P<0.01),均与温度呈显著正相关(P<0.05);有毒微囊藻比例与磷浓度呈显著正相关(P<0.05),与温度呈极显著正相关(P<0.01)。研究结果表明,温度和磷浓度是决定太湖有毒微囊藻种群丰度及其比例的关键因子。     

Spatial-temporal survey of Microcystis oligopeptide chemotypes in reservoirs with dissimilar waterbody features and their relation to genetic variation

The ability of cyanobacteria to produce toxins and other secondary metabolites is patchily distributed in natural populations, enabling the use of cellular oligopeptide compositions as markers to classify strains into ecologically-relevant chemotypical subpopulations. The composition and spatiotemporal distribution of Microcystis chemotypes within and among waterbodies was studied at different time scales by analyzing (i) Microcystis strains isolated between 1998 and 2007 from different Spanish reservoirs and (ii) individual Microcystis aeruginosa colonies collected from pelagic and littoral habitats in Valmayor reservoir (Spain) during a bloom. No agreement between chemotypes and both morphotypes and genotypes (based on cpcBA-IGS, 16S–23S rRNA ITS and mcyB genes) was found, suggesting that oligopeptide profiles in individual strains evolve independently across morphospecies and phylogenetic genotypes, and that the diversity of microcystin variants produced cannot be explained by mcyB gene variations alone. The presence of identical chemotypes in spatially-distant reservoirs with dissimilar trophic state, lithology or depth indicate that waterbody characteristics and geographical boundaries weakly affect chemotype composition and distribution. At smaller spatiotemporal scales (i.e. during bloom), M. aeruginosa populations showed high number of chemotypes, as well as marked differences in chemotype composition and relative abundance among the littoral and pelagic habitats. This indicates that the factors influencing chemotype composition, relative abundance and dynamics operate at short spatial and temporal scales, and supports emerging hypotheses about interactions with antagonistic microorganisms as possible drivers for widespread chemical polymorphisms in cyanobacteria.     

Genetic Variability of Microcystin Biosynthesis Genes in Planktothrix as Elucidated from Samples Preserved by Heat Desiccation during Three Decades

Historic samples of phytoplankton can provide information on the abundance of the toxigenic genotypes of cyanobacteria in dependence on increased or decreased eutrophication. The analysis of a time-series from preserved phytoplankton samples by quantitative PCR (qPCR) extends observation periods considerably. The analysis of DNA from heat-desiccated samples by qPCR can be aggravated by point substitutions or the fragmentation of DNA introduced by the high temperature. In this study, we analyzed whether the heat desiccation of the cellular material of the cyanobacterium Planktothrix sp. introduced potential errors to the template DNA that is used for qPCR within (i) 16S rDNA and phycocyanin genes and (ii) the mcyA gene indicative of the incorporation of either dehydrobutyrine (Dhb) or N-methyl-dehydroalanine (Mdha) in position 7, and (ii) the mcyB gene, which is indicative of homotyrosine (Hty) in position 2 of the microcystin (MC) molecule. Due to high temperature desiccation, the deterioration of the DNA template quality was rather due to fragmentation than due to nucleotide substitutions. By using the heat-desiccated samples of Lake Zürich, Switzerland the abundance of the Dhb, Mdha and Hty genotypes was determined during three decades (1977-2008). Despite major changes in the trophic state of the lake resulting in a major increase of the total Planktothrix population density, the proportion of these genotypes encoding the synthesis of different MC congeners showed high stability. Nevertheless, a decline of the most abundant mcyA genotype indicative of the synthesis of Dhb in position 7 of the MC molecule was observed. This decline could be related to the gradual incline in the proportion of a mutant genotype carrying a 1.8kbp deletion of this gene region. The increase of this mcyA (Dhb) gene deletion mutant has been minor so far, however, and likely did not affect the overall toxicity of the population.     

Transposons Inactivate Biosynthesis of the Nonribosomal Peptide Microcystin in Naturally Occurring Planktothrix spp.

The filamentous cyanobacteria Planktothrix spp. occur in the temperate region of the Northern hemisphere. The red-pigmented Planktothrix rubescens bacteria occur in deep, physically stratified, and less eutrophic lakes. Planktothrix is a known producer of the toxic heptapeptide microcystin (MC), which is produced nonribosomally by a large enzyme complex consisting of peptide synthetases and polyketide synthases encoded by a total of nine genes (mcy genes). Planktothrix spp. differ in their cellular MC contents as well as the production of MC variants; however, the mechanisms favoring this diversity are not understood. Recently, the occurrence of Planktothrix strains containing all mcy genes but lacking MC has been reported. In this study, 29 such strains were analyzed to find out if mutations of the mcy genes lead to the inability to synthesize MC. Two deletions, spanning 400 bp (in mcyB; one strain) and 1,869 bp (in mcyHA; three strains), and three insertions (IS), spanning 1,429 bp (in mcyD; eight strains), 1,433 bp (in mcyEG; one strain), and 1,433 bp (in mcyA; one strain), were identified. Though found in different genes and different isolates and transcribed in opposite directions, IS were found to be identical and contained conserved domains assigned to transposable elements. Using mutation-specific primers, two insertions (in mcyD and mcyA) and one deletion (in mcyHA) were found regularly in populations of P. rubescens in different lakes. The results demonstrate for the first time that different mutations resulting in inactivation of MC synthesis do occur frequently and make up a stable proportion of the mcy gene pool in Planktothrix populations over several years.     

Identification and analysis of whole microcystin synthetase genes from two Korean strains of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa

Microcystins are cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, and are produced by nonribosomal enzyme complexes, mcy gene cluster. In this study, we report on whole mcy gene clusters from two Korean strains of M. aeruginosa that were blooming in Lake Paldang (FCY-26) and Geum river (FCY-28). Their specific gene locus, amino acid information, and sub-cluster orientation were also characterized in both strains. Both gene clusters are of 55 kb, and also each length, number and the arrangement are identical. Their sequence analysis revealed a cluster of 10 genes (mcyA, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J) involved in the biosynthesis of microcystin, and mcyABC and mcyDEFGHIJ formed two polycistronic operon structures that are transcribed bidirectionally from a central promoter region between mcyA and mcyD. The analysis of SNPs provided different nucleotide composition and amino acid variations in two Korean strains of M. aeruginosa. This approach is useful to develop genetic indicators identifying toxic cyanobacteria and their cyanotoxins, and helpful for a better understanding of the diversities of mcy gene clusters, the biosynthesis of microcystin, and the mediation of environmental parameters causing algal blooming and HABs.     

Application of Real-Time PCR for Quantification of Microcystin Genotypes in a Population of the Toxic Cyanobacterium Microcystis sp.

The cyanobacterium Microcystis sp. frequently develops water blooms consisting of organisms with different genotypes that either produce or lack the hepatotoxin microcystin. In order to monitor the development of microcystin (mcy) genotypes during the seasonal cycle of the total population, mcy genotypes were quantified by means of real-time PCR in Lake Wannsee (Berlin, Germany) from June 1999 to October 2000. Standard curves were established by relating cell concentrations to the threshold cycle (the PCR cycle number at which the fluorescence passes a set threshold level) determined by the Taq nuclease assay (TNA) for two gene regions, the intergenic spacer region within the phycocyanin (PC) operon to quantify the total population and the mcyB gene, which is indicative of microcystin synthesis. In laboratory batch cultures, the cell numbers inferred from the standard curve by TNA correlated significantly with the microscopically determined cell numbers on a logarithmic scale. The TNA analysis of 10 strains revealed identical amplification efficiencies for both genes. In the field, the proportion of mcy genotypes made up the smaller part of the PC genotypes, ranging from 1 to 38%. The number of mcyB genotypes was one-to-one related to the number of PC genotypes, and parallel relationships between cell numbers estimated via the inverted microscope technique and TNA were found for both genes. It is concluded that the mean proportion of microcystin genotypes is stable from winter to summer and that Microcystis cell numbers could be used to infer the mean proportion of mcy genotypes in Lake Wannsee.     

Dynamics of toxic genotypes of Microcystis aeruginosa complex (MAC) through a wide freshwater to marine environmental gradient

Bloom-forming species belonging to Microcystis aeruginosa complex (MAC) are the most commonly reported worldwide. MAC blooms are composed by toxic and non-toxic genotypes and the environmental conditions favouring the dominance of toxic genotypes are still a matter of debate among the scientific community. In this study, we evaluated the distribution of toxic MAC genotypes along a seasonal cycle and over an environmental gradient spanning 800 km, from a eutrophic freshwater reservoir in Río Uruguay to marine water in the outer limit of Río de la Plata. Abundance of four mcy genes, mcyB, mcyD, mcyE and mcyJ was determined by qPCR and used as a proxy of abundance of toxic MAC genotypes. All the mcy genes were detected through the seasonal cycle at all sampling sites, being systematically higher in the freshwater reservoir and decreasing towards the marine site. The highest toxic genotype abundance was found during the austral summer months. According to generalized linear regressions and random forest models, temperature and conductivity were the most relevant explanatory variables. This suggests that although toxic MAC genotypes grow optimally in freshwater, they are also able to tolerate the high-salinity and low temperature conditions found in estuarine and marine waters. This ability to resist harsh conditions impose a health risk and a management challenge. To our knowledge, this is the first report addressing several mcy genes in a broad gradient that includes a wide array of different environmental conditions.     

Detection of microcystin producing cyanobacteria in Spirulina dietary supplements using multiplex HRM quantitative PCR

Arthrospira species, under the name ‘Spirulina’, are used as food supplement for its protein, vitamins, and minerals which have several health benefits. Cyanobacterial toxins including microcystins can possibly contaminate these dietary supplements causing hepatotoxicity, tumour formation, and other disorders. The safe use of dietary supplements necessitates the need to assess such toxins in the algal food supplement. The methods which evaluate these dietary supplements should be highly sensitive, cost-effective, and rapid. In this study, multiplex HRM qPCR analysis was used to detect microcystin (MC)-producing cyanobacteria in Spirulina dietary supplements. The multiplex HRM qPCR detection limit was found to be 25 ag of mcyB spiked in a standard concentration of pcb (25 pg). Two distinct melt curves characteristic of pcb (Tm 82.8 ± 0.07 °C) and mcyB (Tm 77.9 ± 0.05 °C) were observed. Microcystin contamination was detected only in the fish food supplements and not in human dietary supplements of Spirulina. Liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis further confirmed the presence of the congeners of microcystin in the identified positive samples.     

Characterization of the Nodularin Synthetase Gene Cluster and Proposed Theory of the Evolution of Cyanobacterial Hepatotoxins

Nodularia spumigena is a bloom-forming cyanobacterium which produces the hepatotoxin nodularin. The complete gene cluster encoding the enzymatic machinery required for the biosynthesis of nodularin in N. spumigena strain NSOR10 was sequenced and characterized. The 48-kb gene cluster consists of nine open reading frames (ORFs), ndaA to ndaI, which are transcribed from a bidirectional regulatory promoter region and encode nonribosomal peptide synthetase modules, polyketide synthase modules, and tailoring enzymes. The ORFs flanking the nda gene cluster in the genome of N. spumigena strain NSOR10 were identified, and one of them was found to encode a protein with homology to previously characterized transposases. Putative transposases are also associated with the structurally related microcystin synthetase (mcy) gene clusters derived from three cyanobacterial strains, indicating a possible mechanism for the distribution of these biosynthetic gene clusters between various cyanobacterial genera. We propose an alternative hypothesis for hepatotoxin evolution in cyanobacteria based on the results of comparative and phylogenetic analyses of the nda and mcy gene clusters. These analyses suggested that nodularin synthetase evolved from a microcystin synthetase progenitor. The identification of the nodularin biosynthetic gene cluster and evolution of hepatotoxicity in cyanobacteria reported in this study may be valuable for future studies on toxic cyanobacterial bloom formation. In addition, an appreciation of the natural evolution of nonribosomal biosynthetic pathways will be vital for future combinatorial engineering and rational design of novel metabolites and pharmaceuticals.     

The dynamics of toxic Microcystis strains and microcystin production in two hypertrofic South African reservoirs

The South African impoundments of Hartbeespoort and Roodeplaat experience excessive blooms of Microcystis species each year. Microcystins, produced primarily by strains of cyanobacteria belonging to the genera Microcystis, Anabaena and Planktothrix, are harmful cyanobacterial hepatotoxins. These bloom-forming cyanobacteria form toxic and non-toxic strains that co-occur and are visually indistinguishable, but can be identified and quantified molecularly. We described the relationships between microcystin production and the genotypic composition of the Microcystis community involved together with environmental conditions in both the Roodeplaat and Hartbeespoort reservoirs using quantitative real time PCR. DNA copy number of the Microcystis-specific 16S rRNA and toxin biosynthesis genes, mcyE and mcyB, were measured. Planktothrix spp. occurred in both reservoirs during autumn, but no toxin-producing species was present as measured with mcyE specific primers, whereas both toxic and non-toxic strains of Microcystis were recorded in both reservoirs, with Microcystis spp. dominating in the summer months. Water-surface temperature correlated strongly with microcystin concentration, mcyE and mcyB copy number. Microcystin production was associated by temperatures higher than 23 °C. This suggests that should current environmental trends persist with surface water temperatures continuing to rise and more and more nutrients continued to be loaded into fresh water systems toxic Microcystis may outgrow non-toxic Microcystis and synthesise even more microcystins.     

Lake Erie Microcystis: Relationship between microcystin production, dynamics of genotypes and environmental parameters in a large lake

Cyanobacteria of genus Microcystis sp. have been commonly found in Lake Erie waters during recent summer seasons. In an effort to elucidate relationships between microcystin production, genotypic composition of Microcystis community and environmental parameters in a large lake ecosystem, we collected DNA samples and environmental data during a three-year (2003–2005) survey within Lake Erie and used the data to perform a series of correlation analyses. Cyanobacteria and Microcystis genotypes were quantified using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). Our data show that Microcystis in Lake Erie forms up to 42% of all cyanobacteria, and that Microcystis exists as a mixed population of potentially toxic and (primarily) non-toxic genotypes. In the entire lake, the total abundance of Microcystis as well as the abundance of microcystin-producing Microcystis is strongly correlated with the abundance of cyanobacteria suggesting that Microcystis is a significant component of the cyanobacterial community in Lake Erie during summer seasons. The proportion of total Microcystis of all cyanobacteria was strongly linked to the microcystin concentrations, while the percentage of microcystin-producing genotypes within Microcystis population showed no correlation with microcystin concentrations. Correlation analysis indicated that increasing total phosphorus concentrations correlate strongly with increasing microcystin concentrations as well as with the total abundance of Microcystis and microcystin-producing Microcystis.     

Distribution and Abundance of Nontoxic Mutants of Cyanobacteria in Lakes of the Alps

The filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix rubescens frequently occurs in deep and stratified lakes in the temperate region of the northern hemisphere and is a known producer of the hepatotoxic secondary metabolite microcystin. These cyclic heptapeptides are synthesized nonribosomally via large enzyme complexes encoded by the microcystin (mcy) synthetase gene cluster. The occurrence of cyanobacterial strains lacking microcystin, but containing the mcy gene cluster has been reported repeatedly; it was shown that this inactivation is due to mutations such as gene deletion events and the insertion of transposable elements. In the present study, 12 lakes in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland were sampled from July 2005 to October 2007, and the proportion of inactive mcy genotypes was quantified in relation to the total population of the red-pigmented filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix by means of quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In total, four different mutations were quantified, namely two insertions affecting mcyD, one insertion affecting mcyA, and a deletion within mcyH and mcyA. The mutations occurred over a wide range of population densities (40–570,000 filaments L⁻¹), and their abundance was found to be positively correlated with population density. However, on average, all nontoxic mutants were found in a low proportion only (min 0%, mean 6.5% ± 1.1 (SE), max 52% of the total population). The genotype containing the mcyHA deletion had a significantly higher proportion (min 0%, mean 3.7% ± 1, max 52%) when compared with all the genotypes containing insertions within the mcy gene cluster (min 0%, mean 2.8% ± 0.7, max 24%). The results demonstrate that the occurrence of inactive mcy genotypes is linearly related to the population density, and selective sweeps of nontoxic mutants did not occur during the transition from prebloom to bloom conditions. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Seasonal variation of cyanobacteria and microcystins in the Nui Coc Reservoir, Northern Vietnam

In order to understand the environmental variables which promote the proliferation of cyanobacteria and variation in microcystin concentrations in the Nui Coc reservoir, Vietnam, physicochemical parameters, the occurrence, and abundance of phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, and microcystin concentration were monitored monthly through the year 2009–2010. The relationships between these parameters were explored using principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson correlation analysis. The phytoplankton community was mainly dominated by the cyanobacterium Microcystis with higher cyanobacteria abundance during summer and autumn season. PCA and Pearson correlation results showed that water temperature and phosphate concentration were the most important variables accounting for cyanobacteria, Microcystis, and microcystin occurrence. Analysis of the toxins by high-performance liquid chromatography demonstrated the presence of two microcystin variants: microcystin-LR (MC-RR) and microcystin-ddRR (MC-ddRR) with total concentrations of the toxins in filtered samples from surface water ranging from 0.11 to 1.52 μg MC-LR equiv L^?1. The high concentrations of microcystin in the Nui Coc reservoir highlighted the potential risk for human health in the basin. Our study underlined the need for regular monitoring of cyanobacteria and toxins in lakes and reservoirs, which are used for drinking water supplies, not only in Vietnam but also in tropical countries.