Successful care and propagation of the endangered amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) in captivity

The Amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) is a highlyendangered rodent endemic to a small stretch of the California portion of the Amargosa River basin in Inyo County's Mojave Desert. Although the Amargosa vole has survived in this naturally fragmented ecosystem for thousands of years, recent habitat degradation due to land development, water drainage, and marsh exploitation has further isolated the species and reduced its available habitat. As part of a conservation effort to preserve the species, a captive breeding population was established in 2014 to serve as an insurance colony and as a source of individuals to release into the wild as restored habitat becomes available. As this is the only captive colony for this species, there is little published information about appropriate care and husbandry for the Amargosa vole. Here we provide information about behavior, diet, reproduction, drug sensitivities, and diseases that affect successful captive care. We also provide recommendations for housing and disease management to preserve natural behaviors and defenses in captive‐born animals.     

Gut microbial ecology of lizards: insights into diversity in the wild,effects of captivity,variation across gut regions and transmission

Animals maintain complex associations with a diverse microbiota living in their guts. Our understanding of the ecology of these associations is extremely limited in reptiles. Here, we report an in‐depth study into the microbial ecology of gut communities in three syntopic and viviparous lizard species (two omnivores: Liolaemus parvus and Liolaemus ruibali and an herbivore: Phymaturus williamsi). Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing to inventory various bacterial communities, we elucidate four major findings: (i) closely related lizard species harbour distinct gut bacterial microbiota that remain distinguishable in captivity; a considerable portion of gut bacterial diversity (39.1%) in nature overlap with that found on plant material, (ii) captivity changes bacterial community composition, although host‐specific communities are retained, (iii) faecal samples are largely representative of the hindgut bacterial community and thus represent acceptable sources for nondestructive sampling, and (iv) lizards born in captivity and separated from their mothers within 24 h shared 34.3% of their gut bacterial diversity with their mothers, suggestive of maternal or environmental transmission. Each of these findings represents the first time such a topic has been investigated in lizard hosts. Taken together, our findings provide a foundation for comparative analyses of the faecal and gastrointestinal microbiota of reptile hosts.     

Preliminary observations on the relationship of calcium ingestion to vitamin D status in the green iguana (Iguana iguana)

We hypothesized the vitamin D-deficient green iguanas with depleted calcium stores would seek to augment calcium intake by self-selection of a high calcium source. Eight green iguanas were offered free-choice ground oystershell in addition to their regular diet. Of these, two had not been exposed to ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation for > 5 years and were demonstrated to be vitamin D-deficient by low circulating levels of the principal vitamin D metabolite, calcidiol (25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol). The six others had been exposed to a UV-B emitting bulb for the previous 3 years and had high circulating calcidiol levels. Average daily food intake (expressed as dry matter per kg body mass) did not differ between the Low-D and High-D iguanas. The daily oystershell intake of the Low-D iguanas (0.02–0.03 g/kg) was lower than that of the High-D iguanas (0.06–0.70 g/kg), leading to a significant difference in calcium intake. The failure of iguanas to increase calcium intake in response to vitamin D-deficiency was puzzling and suggests that vitamin D, as a steroid hormone, may play some role in the expression of calcium appetite. Zoo Biol 16:201–207, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Extinction,reintroduction, and restoration of a lizard meta‐population equilibrium in the missouri ozarks

In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Neuwald & Templeton (2013) report on a 22‐year study of natural populations of Collared Lizards (Crotaphytus collaris) that evolved on isolated on rock outcrops (‘glades’) in the Ozark Mountains in eastern Missouri. This ecosystem was originally maintained by frequent fires that kept the forest understory open, but fire‐suppression was adopted as official policy in about 1945, which led to a loss of native biodiversity, including local extinctions of some lizard populations. Policies aimed at restoring biodiversity included controlled burns and re‐introductions of lizards to some glades, which began in 1984. Populations were monitored from 1984–2006, and demographic and genetic data collected from 1 679 lizards were used to documents shifts in meta‐population dynamics over four distinct phases of lizard recovery: 1–an initial translocation of lizards drawn from the same source populations onto three glades that were likely part of one meta‐population; 2–a period of isolation and genetic drift associated with the absence of fires; 3–a period of rapid colonization and population increase following restoration of fire; and 4–stabilization of the meta‐population under regular prescribed burning. This study system thus provides a rare opportunity to characterize the dynamics of a landscape‐scale management strategy on the restoration of the meta‐population of a reintroduced species; long‐term case studies of the extinction, founding, increase, and stabilization of a well‐defined meta‐population, based on both demographic and population genetic data, are rare in the conservation, ecological, and evolutionary literature.     

Activity patterns and reproductive behavior of the Critically Endangered Bermuda skink (Plestiodon longirostris)

The study of rare or cryptic species in zoos can provide insights into natural history and behavior that would be difficult to obtain in the field. Such information can then be used to refine population assessment protocols and conservation management. The Bermuda skink (Plestiodon longirostris) is an endemic Critically Endangered lizard. Chester Zoo's successful conservation breeding program is working to safeguard, increase and reinforce skink populations in the wild. A key aim of this program is to develop our understanding of the behavior of this species. In this study, using 24 h video recordings, we examined the daily activity patterns, basking behavior and food preferences of four pairs of Bermuda skinks. The skinks displayed a bimodal pattern of activity and basking, which may have evolved to avoid the strength of the midday sun in exposed habitats in Bermuda. Captive Bermuda skinks appear to prefer a fruit-based diet to orthopteran prey. We also documented their reproductive behavior and compared it against two closely related species. Although there were many similarities between the courtship and mating behaviors of the three species, there was a significantly shorter period of cloacal contact in the Bermuda skink. Oophagia was also documented for the first time in this species. This knowledge has enabled the evaluation of the current ex-situ management practices of this species, filled gaps in knowledge that would be challenging to obtain in the field, and enabled the enhancement of both animal husbandry and reproductive success for the conservation breeding program.     

Archaeological mitogenomes illuminate the historical ecology of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and the viability of reintroduction

Genetic analyses are an important contribution to wildlife reintroductions, particularly in the modern context of extirpations and ecological destruction. To address the complex historical ecology of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) and its failed 1970s reintroduction to coastal Oregon, we compared mitochondrial genomes of pre-extirpation Oregon sea otters to extant and historical populations across the range. We sequenced, to our knowledge, the first complete ancient mitogenomes from archaeological Oregon sea otter dentine and historical sea otter dental calculus. Archaeological Oregon sea otters (n = 20) represent 10 haplotypes, which cluster with haplotypes from Alaska, Washington and British Columbia, and exhibit a clear division from California haplotypes. Our results suggest that extant northern populations are appropriate for future reintroduction efforts. This project demonstrates the feasibility of mitogenome capture and sequencing from non-human dental calculus and the diverse applications of ancient DNA analyses to pressing ecological and conservation topics and the management of at-risk/extirpated species.     

极度濒危植物-云南蓝果树的种子形态和不同处理条件对种子萌发的影响

观察了云南蓝果树(Nyssa yunnanensis)种子的形态,并初步研究了萌发基质、光照、人工破坏内果皮和pH梯度碱液处理对云南蓝果树种子萌发的影响。结果表明:云南蓝果树种子(带内果皮)平均大小为0.94cm×0.52cm×0.17cm(长×宽×厚),千粒重约234.3g,有萌发瓣;红土/腐殖土/泥炭土(v/v/v,1∶1∶1)为云南蓝果树种子萌发的适宜基质;种子在光、暗条件下都能萌发;人工破坏内果皮能明显地提高种子的萌发率;碱液处理对云南蓝果树种子的萌发有抑制作用,但对中国蓝果树(N.sinensis)种子的萌发有促进作用。本文还对云南蓝果树的致濒原因进行了讨论。     

野生绿孔雀生态学及保护生物学研究进展

绿孔雀(Pavo muticus)是我国国家I级重点保护野生动物, 也是中国传统文化中具有重要代表意义的物种。在历史上, 绿孔雀曾广泛分布于我国南部大部分地区, 但目前在国内只分布于云南省部分地区。在国外有绿孔雀分布的东南亚国家, 绿孔雀同样经历了从广布到局部甚至零星分布的严重退缩。关于野生绿孔雀生态学和种群现状的研究已开展了不少工作, 但仍有许多空缺; 而该物种面临的生存威胁给保护和管理工作带来了巨大挑战。本文通过梳理国内外野生绿孔雀生态学和保护生物学方面的研究, 阐述了绿孔雀在国内外种群和分布区的变迁与现状、栖息地选择、与同域分布物种的种间关系, 分析了主要的致危因素, 同时为今后的研究方向和保护措施提出了建议。现有研究显示: (1)绿孔雀在国内的种群数量已不足500只, 在东南亚主要分布于中南半岛的部分区域及印度尼西亚的爪哇岛; (2)绿孔雀对水源地有很强的依赖, 倾向于利用远离居民点的区域, 并偏爱利用生境开阔、旱季落叶的热带季雨林, 喜爱与大型有蹄类混群; (3)大型猫科动物可能是绿孔雀潜在的天敌; (4)偷猎和栖息地丧失是绿孔雀面临的最主要的致危因素。综上, 我们建议尽快建立起中国绿孔雀监测网络, 评估野生绿孔雀的种群动态, 识别不同区域绿孔雀的受胁因素, 并结合分子生物学等技术开展保护遗传学研究。在保护实践上, 应在目前中国野生绿孔雀分布较为集中、原生栖息地保存较为完整的红河(元江)中上游河谷地带建立自然保护区, 同时加强巡护工作, 启动栖息地恢复工程, 并杜绝在野生绿孔雀栖息地附近的蓝孔雀(Pavo cristatus)养殖。     

Endangered stands of thuriferous juniper in the western Mediterranean basin: ecological status, conservation and management

Thuriferous juniper is only found in isolated parts of the western Mediterranean: France (Alps, Pyrenees and Corsican highlands), Spain, Algeria and Morocco. These semi-arid mountain stands, where thuriferous juniper trees grow in low-density open woodland, are seriously endangered: (i) In the Atlas mountains, the thuriferous juniper stands are heavily degraded as a result of the intensive wood removal and livestock activity in these densely populated areas. This situation, which will soon become irreversible unless remedial measures are urgently taken, has produced impoverished soils and hillside instability while contributing to desertification. (ii) In Spain, although livestock activity and cultivation have strongly reduced areas occupied by Juniperus thurifera, stands are still numerous and, in some regions, show a good regeneration due to conservation measures. (iii) In France, the decline in human and livestock activities over recent decades has led to a recolonization of some of the Juniper stands by pines or oak. A forest management system that enables these original stands to survive and regenerate must be undertaken without delay. The dynamics of evolution of these stands is quite different north and south of the Mediterranean. In both cases, conservation measures are urgently required to protect or rehabilitate these original stands with floristic, ecological and socio-economic interest.     

Population densities of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) on Bacan and Sulawesi,Indonesia: Effects of habitat disturbance and hunting

Population surveys of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were conducted on the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi and Bacan in 1992–1994 to assess the status of natural populations and determine habitat and anthropogenic factors affecting their population densities. We surveyed five sites for primates, including undisturbed and disturbed habitats. Data were collected on habitat structure and composition at two undisturbed and one disturbed forest site in which the primates were surveyed. The highest density of macaques was found in primary forest at Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve on Bacan (170.3 individuals/km²). Population density in logged forest on Bacan was high but significantly less than primary forest (133.4 individuals/km²). The high density of crested black macaques in primary forest on Bacan is best explained by the high carrying capacity found in primary forest. The lower food quantity and quality of food resources found in logged forest correlated with lower primate densities compared to primary forest. However, the large population of macaques in logged forest demonstrates the conservation value of such forest. Densities on Sulawesi at Tangkoko-Batuangas-DuaSudara Nature Reserve (TBDS) showed a continuing decline since earlier surveys. Primate densities were highest near the protected center of Tangkoko Reserve (66.7 individuals/km²). The peripheral areas of Batuangas and DuaSudara, even though adjacent and continuous, showed lower population densities of 46.4 and 23.5 individuals/km², respectively. The best explanation for the continued decline of Macaca nigra populations at TBDS is hunting. Unless conservation measures are implemented immediately, M. nigra on Sulawesi risks extinction in the near future. Am. J. Primatol. 44:89–106, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

内生真菌感染对禾草宿主生境土壤特性和微生物群落的影响

以羊草(Leymus chinensis)-内生真菌共生体为研究对象, 分别在野外样地和室内盆栽两种实验条件下研究了内生真菌感染对土壤特性和微生物群落结构的影响。结果显示：在处理时间较长并伴随有枯落物分解的羊草样地中, 内生真菌感染促进了土壤氮(N)的积累, 提高了30天培养时间内土壤初始碳(C)矿化速率和前3天土壤矿化量和土壤矿化总量; 而在处理时间较短且没有地上枯落物分解的盆栽羊草中, 内生真菌感染对土壤的C、N含量及C矿化均无显著影响。无论是野外样地还是室内盆栽实验, 内生真菌感染均未引起土壤微生物磷脂脂肪酸种类的变化, 但内生真菌感染均有提高土壤微生物生物量的趋势, 内生真菌显著增加了盆栽羊草土壤中细菌、革兰氏阴性细菌、真菌磷脂脂肪酸含量和磷脂脂肪酸总量, 增加了羊草样地土壤中革兰氏阳性细菌和放线菌的磷脂脂肪酸含量。总体看来, 内生真菌感染能够改变土壤N积累和C矿化率, 并且改变土壤中微生物群落的结构, 这有助于进一步认识内生真菌与羊草之间的共生关系及其在生态系统C、N循环中所起的作用。     

Introgression of exotic Cervus (nippon and canadensis) into red deer (Cervus elaphus) populations in Scotland and the English Lake District

Since the mid‐19th century, multiple introductions of Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon nippon) and North American wapiti (C. canadensis) have taken place in the British Isles. While wapiti have generally been unsuccessful, sika have been very successful, especially in Scotland where they now overlap at least 40% of the range of native red deer (C. elaphus). Hybridization between these two species and red deer has been demonstrated in captivity and in the wild. Using a panel of 22 microsatellite loci that are highly diagnostic between red deer and sika, and moderately diagnostic between red deer and wapiti, we investigated the extent of introgression between these species in 2,943 deer sampled from around Scotland and from the English Lake District using the Bayesian clustering software STRUCTURE. We also used a diagnostic mitochondrial marker for red deer and sika. Our survey extends previous studies indicating little introgression of wapiti nuclear alleles into red deer, in particular in Northern Scotland, Kintyre, and the Lake District. We found a new area of extensive sika introgression in South Kintyre. In the North Highlands, we show for the first time geographically scattered evidence of past hybridization followed by extensive backcrossing, including one red‐like individual with sika introgression, two sika‐like individuals with red deer introgression, and six individuals that were apparently pure sika at the nuclear markers assessed but which carried red deer mitochondria. However, there has not been a collapse of assortative mating in this region. Similarly, in the English Lake District red deer, we found only traces of past sika introgression. No sika alleles were detected in the Central Highlands or the Hebridean red deer refugia. We make suggestions for management to prevent further spread of sika alleles into red deer and vice versa.     

青藏高原禾草混播对土壤微生物多样性的影响

土壤微生物多样性的形成、维持和变化机理是生态学研究的核心内容, 已有大量研究表明土壤微生物群落构建不仅受到土壤环境的深刻影响, 也与植物群落物种多样性密切相关。由于自然群落中土壤环境和植物多样性协同影响土壤微生物, 难以区分和厘清植物多样性和土壤环境对土壤微生物多样性构建的各自影响。该研究基于在青藏高原高寒草地构建的人工草地群落, 比较分析了3种优势禾本科牧草单播和混播及施肥处理13年后, 土壤细菌和真菌物种多样性及其与植物群落和土壤理化因子的关系。主要结果: 1)与各单播处理相比, 3种牧草两两混播一致显著降低了土壤细菌群落的丰富度和多样性, 其中变形菌门和放线菌门相对丰度显著增加, 而酸杆菌门、拟杆菌门和浮霉菌门相对丰度显著减小; 牧草混播对土壤真菌多样性没有显著影响。2)牧草混播显著降低了土壤pH和土壤全氮含量, 增加了土壤全磷含量; 施肥显著降低土壤pH, 增加了土壤速效磷含量; 但这些土壤理化因子的变化不足以解释土壤细菌和真菌多样性在处理间的差异。3)施肥显著提高了植物群落地上生物量, 降低了植物物种丰富度, 土壤细菌多样性随植物物种丰富度增加而减小, 而与植物生物量变化无关。该研究在野外条件下, 通过长期控制实验揭示了高寒草地禾草混播并不增加土壤微生物多样性, 为高寒地区牧草混播人工草地实践提供了科学依据。     

Effects of leachates of the invasive plant, Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) on soil microbial community

The invasive plant Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) changed soil microbial communities in the invaded area to facilitate its growth and inhibit native plants. However, little is known about the driving forces underlying the alteration of soil biota. Leachates from root and aerial part (stem and leaves) of A. adenophora were mixed into soil to imitate field invasion processes for evaluation of its impact on invasion of soil microbial community. The results indicated that soil microbial community was significantly changed when the soil taken from the newly-invaded area was treated with A. adenophora root and aerial part leachates for 3 and 5 weeks, respectively. The biota of newly invaded soil treated with concentration of 100 mg/mL A.adenophora leachates was much closer to that of heavily invaded soil, but was significantly different from that of control soil (newly invaded soil without treatment). A.adenophora leachates promoted growth of the seven dominant rhizosphere bacterial species in the invaded soil. The effect of A.adenophora leachates on soil biota and dominant rhizosphere bacteria was positively correlated with the concentration of leachates, however, the effect of root leachates was stronger than the aerial part leachates. It is assumed that A.adenophora change soil microbial community via nutritional and chemical communication, which helps it in better colonization of the invaded soil.     

Reproductive biology and responses to threats and protection measures of the total population of a Critically Endangered Galápagos plant,Linum cratericola (Linaceae)

We describe a reproductive and population dynamic study of the total population of a Critically Endangered plant over 10 years, during which part of the population was protected from the main threat, feral ungulates. Linum cratericola (Linaceae) was first discovered in 1966 at two sites on Floreana Island, Galápagos. It has since disappeared from one site and survives in three groups of plants at the other, where it has been threatened with extinction by introduced ungulates and invasive plants. Population size, and growth rate and mortality of individual plants, have been monitored since 1997. The population appears highly responsive to changes in threat levels: the three plant groups increased rapidly following protection by fencing and ungulate control, but temporarily declined when feral goat pressure increased and during dry periods. Natural factors that may contribute to population limitation include dry years, grazing by native snails and competition from native vascular plants and cryptogams. Linum cratericola has a single flowering period per year and produces abundant seed with 28% germination after scarification, but with no obvious adaptations for long‐distance dispersal. Potential pollinators included the butterfly Leptotes parrhasioides, the hoverfly Toxomerus crockeri and the carpenter bee Xylocopa darwinii, all endemic to Galápagos. The continued survival of L. cratericola in the wild depends on effective protection from introduced herbivores and invasive plants. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 161 , 89–102.     

Effects of Montane Heathland Restoration on Leafhopper Assemblages (Insecta: Auchenorrhyncha)

At the beginning of the 20th century, many montane heathlands were abandoned and became subject to natural succession or afforestation by humans. Thus, the formerly large montane heathlands slowly degraded into small and isolated patches. In this study, we evaluate the influence of restoration measures on leafhopper (Auchenorrhyncha) assemblages of montane heathland ecosystems in Central Europe. Our analyses comprised three different site types that were adjacent to each other: (1) montane heathlands, (2) restoration sites, and (3) control sites. Leafhoppers showed a clear response to montane heathland restoration. Thus, after 4–5 years since implementation of restoration measurements restoration sites were characterized by the highest species richness. However, detailed analyses of leafhopper diversity, species composition, and environmental parameters on the three site types revealed that restoration sites were rather similar to control sites and significantly differing from montane heathlands. We conclude that leafhoppers are excellent bioindicators for restoration measurements because they reflected environmental differences between the three site types. Restoration measurements might only be a useful instrument to promote typical montane heathland leafhopper communities in the long run. Colonization by leafhoppers is, however, dependent on many different factors such as leafhopper mobility, vegetation structure, microclimate, and the establishment of ericaceous dwarf shrubs. Practitioners should establish a management regime (grazing and sod‐cutting) that creates a mosaic of different habitat structures and increases typical heathland vegetation, thus, favoring the colonization of typical heathland leafhoppers.     

不同林龄橡胶(Hevea brasiliensis)林土壤微生物群落和磷组分的变化

橡胶林是我国热带地区重要的经济林,而土壤磷是热带地区植物生长的重要限制因子之一,理解土壤磷转化机理对于生态系统的磷管理和可持续发展具有重要意义。因此,以热带地区海南儋州不同林龄(4、15、31a)橡胶人工林为研究对象,采用Hedley连续浸提法研究了土壤磷组分,磷脂脂肪酸法(Phospholipid fatty acids,PLFAs)分析了土壤微生物群落。结果表明,在橡胶林内各磷组分的相对含量大小顺序为:闭蓄态磷中等活性态磷活性态磷团聚体内磷钙磷。随着林龄的增加,橡胶林土壤中的磷组分发生显著变化。4、15、31a橡胶林的闭蓄态磷分别占总提取磷的52.61%、47.17%和34.91%,而活性态磷分别占总提取磷的6.67%、11.32%、13.68%。土壤总微生物、细菌、革兰氏阴性菌(G~-)、革兰氏阳性菌(G~+)的PLFAs含量均表现为15a4a31a,而31a橡胶林放线菌、真菌(F)和丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)的PLFAs含量均低于4a和15a。冗余分析(RDA)显示,全氮、有机碳、p H、F、AMF、G~-、G~+是引起不同林龄橡胶林土壤磷组分变化的重要贡献因子。研究表明,在橡胶林发育过程中,土壤理化性质和微生物群落发生了明显的变化,进而影响到土壤磷的转化过程。     

Identifying freshwater mussels (Unionoida) and parasitic glochidia larvae from host fish gills: a molecular key to the North and Central European species

Freshwater mussels (order Unionoida) represent one of the most severely endangered groups of animals due to habitat destruction, introduction of nonnative species, and loss of host fishes, which their larvae (glochidia) are obligate parasites on. Conservation efforts such as habitat restoration or restocking of host populations are currently hampered by difficulties in unionoid species identification by morphological means. Here we present the first complete molecular identification key for all seven indigenous North and Central European unionoid species and the nonnative Sinanodonta woodiana, facilitating quick, low-cost, and reliable identification of adult and larval specimens. Application of this restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) key resulted in 100% accurate assignment of 90 adult specimens from across the region by digestion of partial ITS-1 (where ITS is internal transcribed spacer) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products in two to four single digestions with five restriction endonucleases. In addition, we provide protocols for quick and reliable extraction and amplification of larval mussel DNA from complete host fish gill arches. Our results indicate that this new method can be applied on infection rates as low as three glochidia per gill arch and enables, for the first time, comprehensive, large-scale assessments of the relative importance of different host species for given unionoid populations.