Comparative outlook over physiological and ecological characteristics of three closely-related Myrmica species

This paper summarizes our findings on the eye morphology, visual perception, learning abilities, navigation system and recruitment strategy of three Myrmica species, pointing out the agreement between each species’ morphological, physiological and behavioral characters as well as the accordance between these characters and each species’ environmental preferences. We also draw biological generalities and report other similar studies. Myrmica sabuleti workers have small eyes, perceive the dimension, number of basic elements and orientation of a visual cue but do not distinguish shapes from one another. They see the colors, perceive UV light and the perspective, and adapt their vision to the light intensity. They learn odors better than visual cues and essentially use odors to navigate. Myrmica ruginodis workers have large eyes, distinguish shapes, small see-through forms as well as patterns of luminous points located above them. They have no olfactory memory but a very long lasting visual one. They exclusively use visual cues located above them while travelling, relying on odors only when they no longer see. Myrmica rubra workers have eyes of middle size and distinguish filled shapes but not hollow forms. Their olfactory and visual conditioning lead to equivalent learning in the course of time and they use all available olfactory and visual elements for navigating.     

Some characteristics of the visual perception of the ant Myrmica sabuleti

Abstract. Using classical conditioning techniques, this study aims to determine what the ant Myrmica sabuleti can see and discriminate. It appears that workers see distinctly vertical as well as horizontal segments 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 and 15 mm wide and 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 and 15 cm long. They can also see distinctly horizontal segments (0.5 × 3 cm) located at 1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 cm height, but do not see such a segment situated at 15 cm height. This allowed the assessment of their maximum distance of vision. Myrmica sabuleti workers also see distinctly vertical segments (0.5 × 3 cm) sloping backwards towards the horizontal at different angles (90, 60, 45, 30, 15 and 0 °). Consequently, M. sabuleti workers see cues lying horizontally on the ground and have a stereovision of a portion of their environment. The species also see distinctly black circles of different sizes located horizontally above them. Thus, they are able to see distinctly slightly modified patterns located aside, below, above as well as before them, and have a small area of binocular vision that both eyes can look at. Myrmica sabuleti workers' maximum distance of vision is directly proportional to the square root of the surface of the object observed. Consequently, the smallest vision angular subtense of an object needed to elicit a reaction in M. sabuleti workers is evaluated as being approximately 5 angular degrees.     

Advent of a New Retrotransposon Structure: The Long Form of the Veju Elements

Transposable elements are the main component of plant genomes, especially in grass species. In a previous analysis, we have identified two unusual types of Class I elements, two homologous Veju TRIM elements, but with an unusual long structure. They are formed by the junction of a yet unidentified segment labelled unknown DNA, flanked by the borders of the classical Veju element. Here, we show that the long (Veju_L) and the short forms (Veju_S) coexist within wheat genomes. The associated unknown DNA had always the same origin, and the Veju_L came probably from either illegitimate recombinations or ‘template switching’ between the Veju_S and another unique unknown DNA sequence. This junction then evolved differently within wheat genomes.     

Super and half-sister discrimination by honey bee workers (Apis mellifera L.) in a trophallactic bioassay

Summary Kin recognition and nepotism between honeybee workers (Apis mellifera L.) was analysed in a trophallactic bio-assay. Donor workers were fed dyed sugar syrup and introduced into a recipient group consisting of 12 to 15 workers of the same colony. After allowing for 1 hour of trophallaxis, the distribution of the dyed food was analysed with spectrophotometry. The subfamily composition in the recipient group was varied such that the donor bees had to discriminate between workers of 2 to 7 different patrilines. Donor bees preferentially fed super sisters if few patrilines were present in the recipient group. However, preferential feeding was not observed if the recipient group consisted of workers of more than three subfamilies. Since the natural degree of polyandry causes intracolonial genetic variance to exceed the genetic variability in the experiments, nepotistic behaviour among workers may not reveal intranidal subfamily recognition in honeybees.     

Ontogenesis of visual and olfactory kin recognition,in the ant Myrmica sabuleti (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

In the present work, firstly, ant emergence was observed: it is a long, stereotyped, precarious event which may require the help of congeners. Then, our experiments on Myrmica sabuleti Meinert 1861 callow ants emerging apart from or inside their colony showed the following points. 1. Newly emerged workers, even if having never olfactorily perceived nestmates, are attracted by congeners’ odor. They can distinguish such an odor from that of another species of Myrmica as well as somewhat from that of alien workers of the same species. So, they might have acquired, at least partly, the knowledge of their congeners’ odor during their larval life. 2. Callow ants having visually perceived congeners at their emergence move towards a presented congener’s washed corpse. Callow ants having emerged without seeing any congeners do not move towards such a corpse. Callow ants having emerged beside a piece of thyme moved towards a non-odorous (solvent-washed) piece of thyme. So, ants may acquire, at least partly, the knowledge of the visual aspect of their species just at their emergence, probably by imprinting. 3. Very young workers confronted with their congeners’ odor on one hand and their congeners’ visual aspect on the other hand, somewhat prefer the odor, even if these young ants belong to a species which exclusively uses its vision for navigating. So, for very young ants, whatever the species, odors are more important and better known than visual characters.     

The visual perception of the ant Myrmica ruginodis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Myrmica ruginodis workers are able to distinguish black or white circles from black or white squares, black or white ellipses from black or white rectangles as well as hollow circles or ellipses from hollow squares or rectangles. They can also distinguish differently oriented elements as well as objects containing a various number of elements. These workers are also able to perceive and discriminate transparent cues on a black background and even small luminous spots on a black ceiling. Such visual abilities are in agreement with the species?? eye morphology and system of navigation: the eyes are rather large with a well-developed posterio-dorsal part, and the foragers rely exclusively on cues located above them, neglecting odorous elements as long as visual perception is possible. Probably, they might use cues located in the canopy and the sky to travel in certain circumstances.     

The capacity of a Myrmica ant nest to support a predacious species of Maculinea butterfly

Summary Caterpillars of Maculinea arion are obligate predators of the brood of Myrmica sabuleti ants. In the aboratory, caterpillars eat the largest available ant larvae, although eggs, small larvae and prepupae are also palatable. This is an efficient way to predate. It ensures that newly-adopted caterpillars consume the final part of the first cohort of ant brood in a nest, before this pupates in early autumn and becomes unavailable as prey. At the same time, the fixed number of larvae in the second cohort is left to grow larger before being killed in late autumn and spring. Caterpillars also improve their feeding efficiency by hibernating for longer than ants in spring, losing just 6% of their weight while the biomass of ant larvae increases by 27%. Final instar caterpillars acquire more than 99% of their ultimate biomass in Myrmica nests, growing from 1.3 mg to an estimated 173 mg. A close correlation was found between the weights of caterpillars throughout autumn and the number of large ant larvae they had eaten. This was used to calculate the number of larvae eaten in spring, allowing both for the loss of caterpillar weight during winter and the increase in the size of their prey in spring. It is estimated that 230 of the largest available larvae, and a minimum nest size of 354 M. sabuleti workers, is needed to support one butterfly. Few wild M. sabuleti nests are this large: on one site, it was estimated that 85% of nests were too small to produce a butterfly, and only 5% could support two or more. This prediction was confirmed by the mortalities of 376 caterpillars in 151 wild M. sabuleti nests there. Mortalities were particularly high in nests that adopted more than two caterpillars, apparently due to scramble competition and starvation in autumn. Survival was higher than predicted in wild nests that adopted one caterpillar. These caterpillars seldom exhaust their food before spring, when there is intense competition among Myrmica for nest sites. Ants often desert their nests in the absence of brood, leaving the caterpillar behind. Vacant nests are frequently repopulated by a neighbouring colony, carrying in a fresh supply of brood. Maculinea arion caterpillars have an exceptional ability to withstand starvation, and sometimes survive to parasitize more than one Myrmica colony. Despite these adaptations, predation is an inefficient way to exploit the resources of a Myrmica nest. By contrast, Maculinea rebeli feeds mainly at a lower trophic level, on the regurgitations of worker ants. Published data show that Myrmica nests can support 6 times more caterpillars of Maculinea rebeli than of M. arion in the laboratory. This is confirmed by field data.     

Object classification by echolocation in nectar feeding bats: size-independent generalization of shape

The nectar-feeding bat Glossophaga can be trained to discriminate two hollow forms, a hollow hemisphere and a paraboloid with the same diameter and depth, in total darkness. During training a saturation level of about 85-90% correct choices or more can be reached within 50-100 visits. To investigate generalization abilities, the bats were tested with pairs of the same shape but of different size. Although no reward was offered, they preferred the hollow sphere (30 mm and 50 mm diameter, but not 18 mm) over the corresponding paraboloids. Thus, the bats were able to generalize some features of the rewarded form and detect them in forms of the same shape but different size. This transposition is remarkable, since the bats could not use absolute spectral characters, but had to pay attention to size-independent features common to hollow hemispheres. Possible cues are the variation of echoes in dependence of different angles of calling direction (constant in spheres, changing with position in paraboloids) and/or the "timbre" of the echoes, i.e. their spectral pattern independent of their absolute pitch     

Response to self-motion in waterstriders: visual discrimination between rotation and translation

Waterstriders (Gerris paludum) often try to maintain a nearly stationary position on a moving water surface. Passive motion is restricted to 3 degrees of freedom: yaw, longitudinal, and transverse displacement. They correct for passive rotation and translation by distinct behavioral sequences. The compensatory behavior is predominantly visually controlled.

Shape discrimination by wasps (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Paravespula germanica</Emphasis>) at the food source: generalization among various types of contrast

Wasps (Paravespula germanica) were trained and tested at an artificial feeding site, using convex shapes that produced colour contrast, luminance contrast, or motion contrast against the background. With each of the three types of contrast, we tested the wasps capacity to discriminate the learned shape from novel shapes. In addition, in each experiment we tested the wasps capability to recognize the learned shape when it offered a different type of contrast than that it had during the training. With the coloured shapes, a side-glance at the colour discrimination performance of the wasps was possible in addition. Wasps are found to discriminate between a variety of convex shapes regardless of the type of contrast that they produce against the background. Mainly, they discriminate the learned shape from novel shapes even if the colour of the shapes or the type of contrast they produce against the background is altered in the test. Thus, wasps generalize the learned shape from one colour to another, as well as between colour contrast, luminance contrast, and motion contrast.     

Functional Mouthparts in the Dog Fur Mite Cheyletiella yasguri Smiley, 1965 (Acari,Prostigmata)

The stylet-like chelicerae in C. yasguri are modified claws as they articulate due to muscles in the terminal segment (tarsus) of the modified legs forming the biting apparatus. The united anterior parts of the stylets form a hollow needle through which saliva can be injected 10–20 μm into the skin. When stylets and the salivary duct are retracted they open for ingestion of the dissolved tissue. Thus C. yasguri has external digestion and may leave deposits of saliva in the skin surface of the host. Such deposits probably call for a host reaction—the skin symptoms called cheyletiellosis. Attention is drawn to the striking correspondence between the mouthparts of C. yasguri and those of Tardigrada. They are in principle composed by the same functional elements.     

三种苦苣苔对石灰土和红壤的适应性分析

为探讨苦苣苔科植物对其岩溶生境的适应性,该研究选取黄花牛耳朵(Primulina lutea)、紫花报春苣苔(Pri.purpurea)和桂林蛛毛苣苔(Paraboea guilinensis)三种苦苣苔科植物,将其栽种在石灰土及红壤两种不同类型的土壤中,观测记录其生长性状并对其叶片元素含量进行测定和比较。植株采集过程中,同时采集自然生境中三种苦苣苔科植物叶片及取样植物基部土壤,并对叶片及土壤元素的含量进行测定,作为今后苗圃试验的参照。结果表明:三种苦苣苔科植物在两种土壤上的生长状况及适应性具有差异,其在石灰土上生长良好,在红壤上生长较差;在两种不同土壤中,除N外,桂林蛛毛苣苔的叶片其他元素(P、K、Mn、Mg、Ca、Zn、Cu)差异极显著(P0.01);除P外,紫花报春苣苔的叶片其他元素(N、K、Mn、Mg、Ca、Zn、Cu)差异极显著(P0.01);除N、Cu、Ca外,黄花牛耳朵的叶片元素(P、K、Mn、Mg、Zn)差异极显著(P0.01);三种植物的叶片元素比值,除少数值没有差异外,大部分指标差异都极显著;对叶片元素与栽培土壤元素的相关性分析,发现植物叶片Mn元素与土壤中N、Ca、Mg、Zn、Mn、有机质含量等呈正相关,土壤P元素与叶片中N、P元素呈正相关,而与叶片中Zn元素呈负相关关系。在其他栽培条件一致的条件下,土壤因素及物种差别是造成黄花牛耳朵、紫花报春苣苔和桂林蛛毛苣苔适应性产生差异的主要原因。     

Electron microscopic and experimental studies of the pineal organ in the white-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii

Summary The structure of the pineal organ of Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii, as revealed by light- and electron-microscopy, resembles that of Passer domesticus (Oksche and Kirschstein, 1969; Ueck, 1970). The typical cellular element is the pinealocyte with certain basic structural features of the pineal photoreceptors of lower vertebrates (see Oksche, 1971). However, instead of the characteristic, cone-like outer segments, there are, as in other species of birds, only bulbous cilia with ectopic whorls of lamellae. This structure of the outer segment is, in a sense, contrary to the demonstration of synaptoid contacts, numerous unmyelinated, and occasional myelinated nerve fibers by electron microscopy. In Nissl preparations it was possible to demonstrate typical nerve cells. The pinealocytes of Z. l. gambelii are secretory; their Golgi complex forms granulated vesicles (800–1,400 Å in diameter) that belong to the group of granular inclusions characteristic of monoamines. Autonomie nerve fibers course within the connective tissue capsule of the pineal organ. In many pinealocytes of Z. l. gambelii, the granular endoplasmic reticulum contains extensively expanded cisternae that are filled with a flocculent material and closely associated with bundles of filaments. In a number of cases such loop-like structures are selectively stainable with aldehyde fuchsin. It was not possible to demonstrate specific secretory activity in the supporting cells. Extirpation of the pineal organ in Z. l. gambelii had no definitely detectable influence on the photoperiodic control of testicular growth.Aves, Passeriformes, Fringillidae.Supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft to Professor Oksche and by the National Science Foundation (GB 11905) to Professor Farner. A part of this investigation was effected while Professor Kobayashi held a Visiting Professorship at the University of Giessen.     

小鼠对不同拓扑性质图形的识别

视觉感知的一系列研究都支持大范围拓扑感知的理论．拓扑性质作为整体性质,是视觉感知的基础．视觉对图形拓扑特征差异的感知要优先于对局部特征差异的感知．采用Y迷宫研究了小鼠对不同拓扑性质图形的识别．训练小鼠学习识别圆环和实心矩形这一对拓扑性质不同的图形,之后用拓扑特征相同或不同的其他图形测试小鼠,这些图形包括空心矩形、实心圆、缺口的圆环、缺口的空心矩形．实验结果表明,学会识别圆环(奖励)和实心矩形(无奖励)的小鼠无法区分实心圆和实心矩形以及圆环和空心矩形,但是能够分别从缺口圆环、缺口的空心矩形、实心圆与空心矩形组成的图形对中识别出空心矩形．因此证实了小鼠的视觉系统能够感知拓扑特征的差异并且具有对拓扑性质的概括能力．结果为拓扑知觉对视觉系统来说是基本的这一假设提供了证据．     

Secretion of lipoprotein particles by the cells of the kidney proximal segment in the migrating arctic lamprey,Lampetra japonica

Summary The cells of the kidney proximal segment of the migrating arctic lamprey, Lampetra japonica, contain particles of the same size, electron-density and intracellular location as particles identified by others as very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) in the liver and intestine of teleost fishes and lampreys. These particles are synthesized within the cisternae of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and elements of the Golgi complex. They are transferred to the lateral intercellular space and lamina propria by way of the Golgi vesicles and an intracellular channel system. Some particles are discharged into the lumina of the sinusoidal capillaries of the lamina propria. Although the physiological role of lipoprotein secretion in the renal proximal segment cells is unknown, the present observations provide morphological evidence that the kidney of the arctic lampreys synthesizes lipoproteins and releases them into the circulation at the time when they are undertaking their anadromous migration.     

Sensu stricto individual conditioning,and imitation,in the ant Myrmica sabuleti (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Summary

Conditioning of isolated ants was attempted in the ant Myrmica sabuleti. Isolated ants did not die and could be visually as well as olfactorily conditioned. They acquired and kept ? or partly lost ? their visual ? or their olfactory ? conditioned responses as do ants living in a colony. Each individual of an ant colony is thus able to learn and memorize by itself. Any collective conditioning, learning and memory actually reflect the individuals’ performance. Naive workers paired with isolated previously conditioned ants apparently acquired olfactory conditioning in a shorter time than isolated ants, reaching a conditioning score identical to that of isolated ants. But they lost their apparent conditioning as soon as the olfactory cue was removed. Thus, imitation of nestmates exists in ants but does not lead, by itself, to learning sensu stricto since nothing of what has been imitated is retained.     

微地形对江西武夷山南方铁杉针阔混交林幼树更新的影响

为探讨江西武夷山南方铁杉针阔混交林内不同微地形中幼树更新特征的差异,明晰不同微地形生境对幼树天然更新的影响。以江西武夷山国家级自然保护区内海拔约1800m的南方铁杉针阔混交原始林为研究对象,基于在其中建立的中亚热带南方铁杉针阔混交林动态监测固定样地首次调查数据,将固定样地中160个20m×20m的样方根据其海拔、凹凸度和坡度3种地形参数通过C-均值模糊聚类划分成不同的微地形生境,比较这不同微地形下的更新幼树种类组成及幼树更新特征,包括幼树密度,幼树平均胸径、平均高、平均冠幅,空间分布格局,分析不同微地形下幼树更新特征与地形因子、林分因子之间的关系。结果显示：(1)通过聚类分析,最终将固定样地的微地形生境划分成4类,分别为陡坡、凹地、凸地、缓坡。(2)4类微地形更新幼树优势种组成类似,但优势程度存在差异。闽皖八角幼树在4类微地形中的重要值皆为第一,均大于43%。建群种南方铁杉的幼树在凸地的重要值为9.09%,具有一定优势;在陡坡的重要值为0.62%,优势程度较差。(3)陡坡的更新幼树密度最高,为399株/hm~2,高于凹地,凸地和缓坡;幼树平均胸径和平均高的大小表现为：缓坡>凸地&...     

Extramacrochaetae,a trans-acting gene of the achaete-scute complex of Drosophila involved in cell communication

Summary Phenotypic analyses of genetic combinations involving the gene extramacrochaetae (emc) reveal its participation in the differentiation of both sensory elements and wing veins. The study of near-amorphic alleles of emc in mitotitc recombination clones indicates that it also affects cell proliferation. These clones show abnormal sizes, shapes and spatial distribution. They differentiate extra sensory elements as well as extra veins. A gain of function mutation in the gene causes opposite phenotypes in both differentiation systems. The effects of the mutant on proliferation and patterning are consistent with the emc gene being involved in the transfer of information between neighbouring cells, which leads to the spatial expression of the achaetescute gene complex and genes involved in vein formation.     

Observation of group recruitment to prey in a primitive ponerine ant,Amblyopone sp. (reclinata group) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Summary Group recruitment during foraging was observed in a primitive ponerine ant,Amblyopone sp. (reclinata group) under laboratory condition. Workers searched for prey singly; however, if a item of prey was stung by a worker, other ants joined the attack. After the prey became immobile, one of the workers laid a trail directly toward the nest. This scout worker recruited additional workers (between 3 and 33). They formed a single file procession to the point of prey capture, and cooperatively transported the prey. A scout worker could stimulate nest workers to leave the nest without direct contact, and the recruited workers could trace the trail without guidance by the scout worker. This is the first report of recruitment behavior during foraging in the primitive antAmblyopone.