Membrane transport of hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) belongs to the reactive oxygen species (ROS), known as oxidants that can react with various cellular targets thereby causing cell damage or even cell death. On the other hand, recent work has demonstrated that H₂O₂ also functions as a signalling molecule controlling different essential processes in plants and mammals. Because of these opposing functions the cellular level of H₂O₂ is likely to be subjected to tight regulation via processes involved in production, distribution and removal. Substantial progress has been made exploring the formation and scavenging of H₂O₂, whereas little is known about how this signal molecule is transported from its site of origin to the place of action or detoxification. From work in yeast and bacteria it is clear that the diffusion of H₂O₂ across membranes is limited. We have now obtained direct evidence that selected aquaporin homologues from plants and mammals have the capacity to channel H₂O₂ across membranes. The main focus of this review is (i) to summarize the most recent evidence for a signalling role of H₂O₂ in various pathways in plants and mammals and (ii) to discuss the relevance of specific transport of H₂O₂.     

Hydrogen peroxide in regulation of plant metabolism: Signalling and its effect under abiotic stress

Photosynthetica - In plants, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) acts as a signalling molecule that facilitates various biochemical and physiological processes. H2O2 is a versatile molecule, involved in...     

Nitric Oxide Signalling In Plants

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important molecule that acts in many tissues to regulate a diverse range of physiological processes. It is becoming apparent that NO is a ubiquitous signal in plants. Since the discovery of NO emission by plants in the 1970s, this gaseous compound has emerged as a major signalling molecule involved in multiple physiological functions. Research on NO in plants has gained significant awareness in recent years and there is increasing indication on the role of this molecule as a key-signalling molecule in plants. The investigations about NO in plants have been concentrated on three main fields: The search of NO or any source of NO generation, effects of exogenous NO treatments, NO transduction pathways. However we have limited information about signal transduction procedures by which NO interaction with cells results in altered cellular activities. This article reviews recent advances in NO synthesis and its signalling functions in plants. First, different sources and biosynthesis of NO in plants, then biological processes involving NO signalling are reviewed. NO signalling relation with cGMP, protein kinases and programmed cell death are also discussed. Besides, NO signalling in plant defense response is also examined. Especially NO signalling between animal and plant systems is compared.     

The polyamines and their catabolic products are significant players in the turnover of nitrogenous molecules in plants

Polyamines (PAs) are nitrogenous molecules which play a well-established role in most cellular processes during growth and development under physiological or biotic/abiotic stress conditions. The molecular mode(s) of PA action have only recently started to be unveiled, and comprehensive models for their molecular interactions have been proposed. Their multiple roles are exerted, at least partially, through signalling by hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), which is generated by the oxidation/back-conversion of PAs by copper amine oxidases and PA oxidases. Accumulating evidence suggests that in plants the cellular titres of PAs are affected by other nitrogenous compounds. Here, we discuss the state of the art on the possible nitrogen flow in PAs, their interconnection with nitrogen metabolism, as well as the signalling roles of PA-derived H(2)O(2) during some developmental processes and stress responses.     

Doing the unexpected: proteins involved in hydrogen peroxide perception

A look back at the early literature on reactive oxygen species (ROS) gives the impression that these small inorganic molecules had a singular defined role, that of host defence in mammalian systems. However, it is now known that their roles also include a major part in cell signalling, in a broad range of organisms from mammals to plants. Similarly, a look back at papers on the proteins now thought to be involved in the perception of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) will show that they too had defined functions assigned to them, completely independent to H(2)O(2) signalling. These proteins have disparate roles, in ethylene perception or even major metabolic pathways such as glycolysis. However, the chemistry of H(2)O(2) sensing dictates that the proteins have a commonality, with active thiol groups being potential ROS targets. The challenge now is to determine the full range of proteins which may partake in the role of H(2)O(2) perception, and to determine the mechanisms by which the signal is transmitted to the next players in the signal transduction pathways.     

Plant aquaporins: novel functions and regulation properties

Aquaporins are water channel proteins of intracellular and plasma membranes that play a crucial role in plant water relations. The present review focuses on the most recent findings concerning the molecular and cellular properties of plant aquaporins. The mechanisms of transport selectivity and gating (i.e. pore opening and closing) have recently been described, based on aquaporin structures at atomic resolution. Novel dynamic aspects of aquaporin subcellular localisation have been uncovered. Also, some aquaporin isoforms can transport, besides water, physiologically important molecules such as CO(2), H(2)O(2), boron or silicon. Thus, aquaporins are involved in many great functions of plants, including nutrient acquisition, carbon fixation, cell signalling and stress responses.     

Ectopic expression of SOD and APX genes in Arabidopsis alters metabolic pools and genes related to secondary cell wall cellulose biosynthesis and improve salt tolerance

Molecular Biology Reports - Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is known to accumulate in plants during abiotic stress conditions and also acts as a signalling molecule. In this study, Arabidopsis thaliana...     

Proteomic identification of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase as an inhibitory target of hydrogen peroxide in Arabidopsis.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is now recognised as a key signalling molecule in eukaryotes. In plants, H2O2 is involved in regulating stomatal closure, gravitropic responses, gene expression and programmed cell death. Although several kinases, such as oxidative signal-inducible 1 (OXI1) kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinases are known to be activated by exogenous H2O2, little is known about the proteins that directly react with H2O2. Here, we utilised a proteomic approach, using iodoacetamide-based fluorescence tagging of proteins in conjunction with mass spectrometric analysis, to identify several proteins that might be potential targets of H2O2 in the cytosolic fraction of Arabidopsis thaliana, the most prominent of which was cytosolic glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (cGAPDH; EC 1.2.1.12). cGAPDH from Arabidopsis is inactivated by H2O2 in vitro, and this inhibition is reversible by the subsequent addition of reductants such as reduced glutathione (GSH). It has been suggested recently that Arabidopsis GAPDH has roles outside of its catalysis as part of glycolysis, while in other systems this includes that of mediating reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling. Here, we suggest that cGAPDH in Arabidopsis might also have such a role in mediating ROS signalling in plants.     

Life under pressure: hydrostatic pressure in cell growth and function

H(2)O is one of the most essential molecules for cellular life. Cell volume, osmolality and hydrostatic pressure are tightly controlled by multiple signaling cascades and they drive crucial cellular functions ranging from exocytosis and growth to apoptosis. Ion fluxes and cell shape restructuring induce asymmetries in osmotic potential across the plasma membrane and lead to localized hydrodynamic flow. Cells have evolved fascinating strategies to harness the potential of hydrodynamic flow to perform crucial functions. Plants exploit hydrodynamics to drive processes including gas exchange, leaf positioning, nutrient acquisition and growth. This paradigm is extended by recent work that reveals an important role for hydrodynamics in pollen tube growth.     

Post-translational modification and proteolytic processing of urinary osteopontin

H(2)O(2) is a relatively long-lived reactive oxygen species that signals between cells and organisms. H(2)O(2) signalling in plants is essential for response to stress, defence against pathogens and the regulation of programmed cell death. Although H(2)O(2) diffusion across membranes is often considered as a passive property of lipid bilayers, native membranes represent significant barriers for H(2)O(2). In the present study we addressed the question of whether channels might facilitate H(2)O(2) conduction across plasma membranes. The expression of several plant plasma membrane aquaporins in yeast, including PIP2;1 from Arabidopsis (where PIP is plasma membrane intrinsic protein), enhanced the toxicity of H(2)O(2) and increased the fluorescence of dye-loaded yeast when exposed to H(2)O(2). The sensitivity of aquaporin-expressing yeast to H(2)O(2) was altered by mutations that alter gating and the selectivity of the aquaporins. The conduction of water, H(2)O(2) and urea was compared, using molecular dynamics simulations based on the crystal structure of SoPIP2;1 from spinach. The calculations identify differences in the conduction between the substrates and reveal channel residues critically involved in H(2)O(2) conduction. The results of the calculations on tetramers and monomers are in agreement with the biochemical data. Taken together, the results strongly suggest that plasma membrane aquaporin pores determine the efficiency of H(2)O(2) signalling between cells. Aquaporins are present in most species and their capacity to facilitate the diffusion of H(2)O(2) may be of physiological significance in many organisms and particularly in communication between different species.     

Learning in honeybees: from molecules to behaviour

Studies in a variety of organisms as diverse as molluscs, insects, birds and mammals have shown that memories can exist in a variety of temporal domains ranging from short-term memories in the range of minutes to long-term memories lasting a lifetime. While transient covalent modifications of proteins underlie short-term memory, the formation of long-term memory requires gene expression and protein synthesis. Different intracellular signalling cascades have been implicated in distinct aspects of learning and memory formation. Little is known however, about how learning in intact animals is related to the modulation of these signalling cascades and how this contributes to distinct neuronal and behavioural changes in vivo. Associative learning in the honeybee provides the opportunity to study processes of memory formation by analysing its progression through different phases, across levels of behaviour, neural circuits, and cellular signalling pathways. The findings reveal evidence that various cellular signalling pathways in the neuronal circuit of distinct brain areas play a role in different processes during learning and memory formation.     

Redox survival signalling in retina-derived 661W cells

Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in processes involving cellular damage and subsequent cell death, especially in organs such as the eye that are constantly exposed to excitatory signals. However, recent studies have shown that oxidant species can also act as intracellular signalling molecules promoting cell survival, but little is known about this mechanism in the retina. The present study demonstrates for the first time that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is generated rapidly and acts as a pro-survival signal in response to a variety of apoptotic stimuli in retina-derived 661W cells and in the retinal ganglion cell line RGC-5. Focussing on 661Ws and serum deprivation, we systematically investigated pro-survival and pro-death pathways and discovered that the rapid and transient burst of H2O2 activates the AKT survival pathway. Activation of the apoptotic machinery takes place following the decline of H2O2 to basal levels. To substantiate this proposed pro-survival role of H2O2, we inhibited the oxidant burst, which exacerbated cell death. Conversely, maintenance of the oxidant signal using exogenous H2O2 enhanced cell survival. Overall, the results presented in this study provide evidence for a novel role of H2O2 in mediating survival of retinal cells in response to apoptotic stimuli.     

An intimate liaison: spatial organization of the endoplasmic reticulum–mitochondria relationship

Organelle localization is often crucial to properly modulate cellular functions and signalling cascades. For example, the distribution of organelles in axons is crucial for their function and is dysregulated in several diseases. Similarly, relative positioning of two or more organelles is also important to perform certain specialized processes. Perhaps, the best‐known form of interorganellar organization is that between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. Close communication between these two compartments has been observed for a long time. Recent evidence suggests that this is the basis for a bidirectional communication regulating a number of physiological processes ranging from mitochondrial energy and lipid metabolism to Ca²⁺ signalling and cell death. The recent discovery of some of the molecular mediators of the tethering already allowed to extend the function of this paradigmatic spatial organization to previously unexpected functions, and will foster future research to explore it in cellular signalling cascades as well as in disease.     

Intracellular signalling: sphingosine-1-phosphate branches out

Recent studies indicate that sphingosine-1-phosphate - known to be an important signalling molecule in animal cells - is involved in Ca(2+)-dependent signalling in yeast and higher plants, raising the likelihood that it is a universal signalling molecule with a diverse range of functions in eukaryotes.     

Guard cell-specific inhibition of Arabidopsis MPK3 expression causes abnormal stomatal responses to abscisic acid and hydrogen peroxide

MAP kinases have been linked to guard cell signalling. Arabidopsis thaliana MAP Kinase 3 (MPK3) is known to be activated by abscisic acid (ABA) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), which also control stomatal movements. We therefore studied the possible role of MPK3 in guard cell signalling through guard cell-specific antisense inhibition of MPK3 expression. Such transgenic plants contained reduced levels of MPK3 mRNA in the guard cells and displayed partial insensitivity to ABA in inhibition of stomatal opening, but responded normally to this hormone in stomatal closure. However, ABA-induced stomatal closure was reduced compared with controls when cytoplasmic alkalinization was prevented with sodium butyrate. MPK3 antisense plants were less sensitive to exogenous H(2)O(2), both in inhibition of stomatal opening and in promotion of stomatal closure, thus MPK3 is required for the signalling of this compound. ABA-induced H(2)O(2) synthesis was normal in these plants, indicating that MPK3 probably acts in signalling downstream of H(2)O(2). These results provide clear evidence for the important role of MPK3 in the perception of ABA and H(2)O(2) in guard cells.     

颈动脉体对化学信号的换能作用

颈动脉体可以将低氧和血液中其它刺激信号（可能包括低血糖）转换成不同强度的传入神经放电,沿心肺和神经内分泌反射的传入途径进入中枢,形成反射环路。低氧可抑制颈动脉体Ⅰ型细胞中的多种K＋通道,这种作用可能有种属差异; K＋通道的抑制使膜电位去极化,启动电压依赖性Ca2＋内流,最后导致神经分泌和传入放电。离子通道埘低氧的反应可能是通过间接途径发生的,因此近期的工作集中在研究颈动脉体Ⅰ型细胞中在低氧感受中起关键作用的其它蛋白质。虽然有人认为来源于线粒体和／或NADPH的活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS）起一定作用,但是它们在颈动脉体中转导低氧信号的证据还不足。目前正在对另外两种假设进行检验。第一种假设是血红素加氧酶2（haemoxygenase 2,HO-2）通过信号分子CO控制特殊K＋通道的活动,而CO的生成量与氧分压高低有关。第二种假设是认为细胞能量感受器腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶（AMP- activated protein kinase,AMPK）起作用;低氧时AMP／ATP比值升高,激活AMPK,从而抑制Ⅰ型细胞的K＋通道,传入放电增加。颈动脉体的细胞上具有丰富的对氧敏感的K＋通道,低氧感受这个重要的细胞活动可以通过多条途径进行,在总反应中每种蛋白质也可能起不同的作用,例如不同蛋白质对氧的亲合力不同等。关于颈动脉体感受低血糖的机制尚不清楚,但最近有证据提示,它并非由K＋通道关闭引起的,因此感受低血糖的机制和感受低氧的机制是不同的。