Feeding and ranging patterns of forest hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)

The feeding and ranging patterns of a troop of hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus, Colobinae) were studied in Kanha Tiger Reserve, central Indian Highlands for 1850 hr (1981–1982), in a mosaic of moist deciduous forest and anthropogenic meadow. The location, size, and species of each tree within the 74.5-ha troop annual range was known and the phenology of all tree species was sampled. According to scan sampling, the troop spent 25.7% of the daytime feeding, with range use concentrated on an island of dry deciduous forest. Whereas adjacent troops occupied only the periphery of the focal troop's range, all-male bands occupied its center, especially during takeover and infanticidal attacks. The troop consumed items from 60 of the 67 species of trees and woody climbers available; mature leaves (34.9% of feeding time), fruits (24.4%), leaf buds (10.6%), flowers and flower buds (9.5%), young leaves (3.6%), insects (3.0%), and gum (1%). The monthly utilization of fruit, open leaf buds, and flower buds is correlated significantly with their abundance, and the troop spent significantly more time feeding and less time moving when consuming mature leaves. Comparison of tree dispersion and langur ranging patterns suggests that the distribution of the most important food trees is a major influence on their range use.     

Population changes and ranging behaviour of wild Japanese monkeys at Mt. Kawaradake in Kyushu,Japan

Population changes and home range utilization of the wild Japanese monkey at Mt. Kawaradake have been studied since 1972. Age compositions of this troop were obtained over a seven-year period. Troop size decreased from over 100 to 40 individuals as a result of a capture in 1974. The capture affected directly and indirectly the troop's range and population dynamics. The troop reduced its range size from 4.7 km² to 2.67 km² and changed its utilization pattern in relation to the decrease in size. After the capture, the troop used one particular area intensively, whereas the rhythmic nomadic pattern had been observed as before. This may have been caused by the decrease in the overall food requirement of the troop. The birth rate increased significantly after the capture. However, troop size did not increase because of the low recruitment rate for adult females and the high mortality of juveniles.     

Tradition in Lemur catta Behavior at Berenty Reserve,Madagascar

Lemur catta Troop D at Berenty Reserve has been studied intermittently for 35 years. During 90 hours of continuous sampling in August 1998, I observed and mapped troop movement and scent marking. I compared these observations with data from June, 1975. The core of Troop D1's 1998 home range is the same as for Troop D in 1975. Sixty-two percent of Troop D1's time in 1998 was spent in the 1975 home range, and 52% of their scent marks were placed in that 1975 home range. The remainder of their time was spent in an extension of their home range, which is now an area of confrontation with an adjacent troop. They used the same sleeping trees in the 2 years, and all of the 1998 scent marks deposited in the 1975 home range were placed in the same locations marked in 1975. The similarities in their use of space in 1975 and 1998 were remarkable.     

Take-over and infanticide in South Indian Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)

A take-over and infanticide were observed in a South Indian population of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). A one-male, bisexual troop of langurs (Troop B1) was attacked by a band of two adult males and one subadult male. During the take-over, the resident male and one elderly female were driven from the troop. The youngest infant, about two months old, was fatally wounded by an attack from the dominant incoming male (S1). However, other young infants in Troop B1 were left unharmed. All three incoming males remained in Troop B1 but the troop appeared to remain functionally one-male, as S1 did not allow the other adult male to copulate. There was no sign that S1 attempted to eject the other two males from troop B1. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Patterns of movement by baboons in the Drakensberg mountains: Primary responses to the environment

The movement patterns of two chacma baboon troops in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa were studied over an 18-month period. One of these troops (HIGH) lived on the escarpment slopes (1920–2980 m), while the other (LOW) lived primarily in the montane belt (1560–2000 m). In this paper we analyze the effects of environmental variables on day journeys and home range use. We found the troops to be similar in the temporal patterning of their daily movement, in the resistance of travel speed to variations in local climatic conditions, and in their response to the nutritional bottleneck at the end of the austral winter. While both troops traveled farther as food became scarcer, HIGH troop undertook longer day journeys than LOW troop. This was probably due to the interactive effects of absolutely lower food availability and lower ambient temperatures. HIGH troop traveled farther when food was scarcer and when minimum temperatures were higher. Neither variable accounted for variance in the day journeys of LOW troop. Both troops used some areas of their home ranges preferentially. For LOW troop this preference followed the spatial distribution of food. While the same was generally true for HIGH troop, its home range use was complicated by the adverse temperatures of winter and spring. It abandoned the higher, more productive part of its range once temperatures became severe, returning only after minimum ground temperatures had risen above 0°C. These usage patterns differ from those described for eastern African baboon populations and reflect both the severity and sesonality of climate and the poor quality and extreme dispersion of food that characterize these southern mountains.     

Group composition,home range,and diet of the maroon leaf monkey (Presbytis rubicunda) at Tanjung Puting Reserve,Central Kalimantan,Indonesia

Maroon leaf monkeys (Presbytis rubicunda) were studied at the Orangutan Research Conservation Project study area at the Tanjung Puting Reserve in Central Indonesian Borneo for approximately 15 months in 1974, 1975, and 1977. Over 250 observation hr involving 300 encounters with the monkeys were logged. Troop size ranged from three to eight individuals in the nine troops surveyed with only one adult male being present in each troop. Home range size varied from 0.33 km² to 0.99 km² and correlated with troop size. Forty-six different food types were observed eaten by the maroon leaf monkeys; of these foods, 52% consisted of fruits, 36% of leaves, and 12% of flowers.     

Analysis of population changes by measurement of body weight in the Koshima troop of Japanese monkeys

Measurements of the body weight of monkeys in the Japanese monkey troop on Koshima islet in southern Japan have been made since 1970. Population changes in the troop have been recorded since 1952. The population changes were further analyzed on the basis of the body weight changes of the troop members. The recent history of the Koshima troop can be divided into three periods differing according to conditions of artificial feeding: (1) a semi-wild period (SW Period, 1952–63); (2) an artificial feeding period (AF Period, 1964–71); (3) and a restricted artificial feeding period (Non-AF Period, 1972–77). The AF Period represented a period of population growth, whereas the Non-AF Period was a declining one when the population density of the troop was roughly ten times that of most wild troops. These population changes, i.e., changes in population parameters especially in the population declining phase, could be fairly well understood from the general features of the body weight changes of the troop members, the slow body weight growth, elevation of age at first birth, and small size of adult females. Reproduction and survival were affected by seasonal and yearly changes in body weight. The pattern of changes in body weight displayed seasonal peaks in the autumn and spring. Of these, the former suggests that fruit eating in the autumn is an important factor in the reproduction and growth of the monkeys.     

Socio-ecological study ofPresbytis aygula in West Java

Field studies of the Sunda Island leaf monkey,Presbytis aygula, were made in the montane forests of West Java at an altitude of 1,400–1,800 m between September 1976 and August 1981. The troop size ofP. aygula varied from 3 to 12 animals and the population density was about 35 animals/km² in Patenggang and 11–12 animals/km² in Kamojang. They were organized essentially in one male troops, though the troops in the Patenggang area usually consisted of only an adult pair and its offspring. Home range size was about 14 ha in Patenggang and about 35–40 ha in Kamojang. Some of those ranges overlapped with each other. The differences between these two areas were considered to be the result of recent habitat destruction and human impact in Patenggang. Animals spent more time in resting than other activities during a day.P. aygula in Java, consumed mainly leaves, eating less fruits and other parts of plants. Troop cohesion was tight, but social interactions between troop members were rather infrequent. The patterns of intertroop encounters and vocal sounds were described.     

Size-dependent feeding association of two wrasses (genusPseudolabrus) with the morwong,Goniistius zonatus

While foraging on the substrate, two closely-related wrasses,Pseudolabrus eoethinus andP. sieboldi, which occur sympatrically in the Uwa Sea, Shikoku Island, Japan, often accompanied the morwong,Goniistius zonatus, eating benthic invertebrates flushed out by the latter's feeding activities. Both wrasses tended to feed more frequently in such an association than when solitary.Pseudolabrus eoethinus (9–17 cm TL) accompaniedG. zonatus more frequently than the smallerP. sieboldi (7.5–12 cm TL), large individuals of the former attending the host more often than smaller ones. This tendency was not apparent inP. sieboldi. The size-dependent association frequency was determined by 1) the chances of encountering a host, and 2) interference among the wrasses. The frequency of encounter of wrasses with a host depended on the home range size of the former, such being positively correlated with body size. Interference among the wrasses resulted in smaller individuals being repelled by larger ones, irrespective of species, when they were approaching or attending a host.     

Shape of,and body direction in,huddles of Japanese macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis>) in Arashiyama,Japan

We studied huddles of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in the Arashiyama E troop at the “Arashiyama Monkey Park, Iwatayama” of Kyoto, central Japan. The macaques made physical contact with other individuals and formed huddles when the air was cold. The 99–101 adult females and 26–36 adult males in the study troop formed 345 huddles during 42 scan samples in the winter of 2001 and 376 huddles during 52 scan samples in the winter of 2002. The average size of huddles was 2.3 (range 2–7) individuals. Males huddled less frequently than females. Maternal kin-related dyads formed 2-female huddles more frequently than unrelated dyads. Choice of huddling partners might restrict the size of huddles. The most frequently observed 3 and 4-member huddles were triangular and diamond-shaped. Macaques usually huddled ventro–ventrally, ventro–laterally, and ventro–dorsally. A third individual frequently placed the ventral part of its body against the first individual and simultaneously put the lateral part of its body against the second individual, so that the 3 individuals formed a triangular huddle. This behaviour indicates that Japanese macaques choose their position and body direction in the huddle to reduce the area of body surface exposed to the air, thereby conserving body heat.     

Japanese monkeys living in the Okoppe Basin of the Shimokita Peninsula: The second report of the winter follow-up survey after the aerial spraying of herbicide

In regard to a late winter ecological survey of the Japanese monkeys living in the Okoppe Basin and to investigate the aftereffects of the herbicide which was sprayed aerially by the Aomori Regional Forestry Office, the following results were obtained: Troop Z, one of the three troops found in December, moved restrictively around the upper basin of the Okoppe River during this survey period, which area had been strongly influenced by the spraying. The movements of troop Z could be traced throughout this period and the distance of movement per day, the sleeping places, the population, and the social composition were confirmed. The nomadic range was 2.5 square km, equal to only 15.6% of that of December. The monkeys of troop Z fed mainly the bark and buds of trees. The poisonous residue remaining in the bark and buds is ingested by pregnant female monkeys through feeding and may exert some influence upon the fetus.     

Habitual fission-fusion and social organization of the Hakone troop T of Japanese macaques in Kanagawa prefecture,Japan

To analyze the socioecological factors of habitual fission-fusion of troop members, which is an underreported phenomenon in Japanese macaques, the seasonal pattern of fission-fusion within the Hakone troop T in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, was examined. Although almost all the study troop members were included in a large-sized group in winter, a portion of its members of ten formed small subgroups from spring to autumn. The frequencies and age-sex composition of these subgroups changed seasonally. All troop members participated, more or less, in subgroup formation. Subgroups tended to be composed of animals of the same age-sex class. Troop members did not fission along matrilineal lines. Although the study troop members repeatedly joined with and parted from subgroups, the characteristic social structure of Japanese macaque troops was maintained. Habitual fission-fusion among troop members may be one of a number of foraging strategies that facilitate efficient food gathering when the population density exceeds and /or reaches the carrying capacity of the area. The seasonal variation of pattern and composition type of each subgroup could be attributed to alternation of attractive food plant species, as well as age, rank, and sexual activity of both sexes.     

Population Structure and Ranging Patterns of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis> in Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve,Shaanxi, China

We describe the population structure and ranging patterns of a troop of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) based on a study conducted between November 2002 and November 2003 in Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve, Shaanxi Province, China. The troop comprised several 1-male units and an all-male unit. Opportunistic censuses revealed that there were ≥112 individuals in the troop. The adult sex ratio (male vs. female) was 1:3.7. The ratios of adults to immatures and infants to adult females were 1:0.7 and 1:2, respectively. Via a grid system, we estimated the home range of the troop to be 18.3 km², of which 7.4 km² was the core area. The subjects exhibited distinct seasonal ranging patterns. Their movement across the home range was extensive in spring and restricted in autumn. In addition, reuse of quadrats was highest in winter and lowest in spring in comparison with other seasons. The daily path length (DPL) varied from .75 to 5 km, with a mean of 2.1 km. Seasonal analysis showed that DPL is significantly shorter in winter than in spring or summer; however, there is no significant difference between the DPLs of spring and summer or those of spring and autumn. The monkeys occupied elevations 1500–2600 m above sea level; the annual mean of altitudinal range is 2137 m. Contrary to early studies that reported Rhinopithecus roxellana migrates to lower elevations in winter, we found no evidence supporting a seasonal altitudinal shift. Using the highest troop count and home range estimate, and considering the extent of range overlap between neighboring troops, we calculated the population density and biomass of Rhinopithecus roxellana to be 7.2 individuals/km² and 68.3 kg/km², respectively. The temporal and spatial distribution of food resources may be the most important determinant of ranging behavior in Rhinopithecus roxellana, though understanding the relationship between resource distribution and seasonal range use may require further investigation.     

Behavioral ecology ofAlouatta seniculus in Andean cloud forest

The behavior and ecology ofAlouatta palliate àre well studied; we report here on the first long-term study of anotherAlouatta species, the red howler monkey,A. seniculus. AlthoughA. seniculus was studied at a high elevation in the Colombian Andes, it exhibits many behavioral and ecological similarities to lowlandA. palliata. Continuous focal sampling indicates thatA. seniculus spends 78.5% of its time resting, 5.6% moving, and 12.7% feeding. It has a day range of 1.09 km and a home range of 22 ha. Like its more northern relative,A. seniculus spends more than 50% of its feeding time on leaves–especially young leaves–but on a dry-weight basis, fruits comprise the majority of its diet. The small home and day ranges observed as well as the large amounts of time spent resting are all argued to be aspects of a relatively folivorous foraging strategy. Daily food intake is estimated to be 1.23 kg fresh weight (0.266 kg dry weight). Foraging efficiency (yield/time) varies by a factor of almost 6 across major food types, with item size and distribution being the key determinants. Food preferences change markedly over the activity period, with high-energy sources predominating early and high-protein sources late.     

Population dynamics of japanese macaques at ryozenyama: III. Female desertion of the troop

Troop desertions by females which were observed in Japanese macaque troops at Ryozenyama between 1969 and 1978 are described and the factors which drive females out from the troop are discussed with reference to the troop desertion by males and to the social structure of Japanese macaques. There were 14 cases and altogether 22 female deserters of 5 or more years old; ratio(%) of frequency of the female desertion to the total number of females was 9.48 a year. Female deserters of less than 10 years old had no mother in the troop and belonged to rather isolated kin-groups on the periphery of the troop prior to desertion except for those who deserted it with their mothers. Old deserters were not always very peripheral ones and some of them cut kinship bonds when doing so. Many female deserters were found in or near the moving range of the original troop and some came back to it. They were easily accepted without antagonism and they were expected to retain the potential membership of their natal troop. From these facts it is clear that the basic organization of the troop of Japanese macaques is the kin-group and the animals are bound by the head of the kin-group or elder mothers but that intra-kinship social bonds as well as inter-kinship bonds gradually weaken in old females. A part of the field work was financed by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of Mombusho (Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan), Nos. 854144, 054152, 354242, 948255 and 248030. The preliminary report of this study is seen in “The Population Genetics of Japanese Monkeys” K. Nozawa (ed.), Kyoto University Primate Research Institute, pp. 41–54, which was written in Japanese.     

Seasonal home range use by Japanese monkeys in the snowy Shiga heights

Between December 1974 and November 1975 (157 days), it was found that seasonal home range changes in the Shiga C troop were closely related to food changes, vegetation, and the existence of neighbouring troops. The detailed points clarified may be summarized as follows: (1) The seasonal home range sizes from winter to autumn were 1.23 km², 1.46 km², 1.69 km², and 1.21 km², respectively, and the annual size was 3.66 km²; (2) The food changed from bark and buds of trees in winter to young leaves and stems of grasses and trees in spring and summer, and fruits in autumn; (3) Each home range clearly changed according to the phenology of the plants used as food at each season; (4) The food abundance for the monkeys was extremely poor in winter, relatively poor in summer, plentiful in spring, and the best in autumn; and (5) The Shiga C troop and the neighbouring Shiga B₂ troop overlap in their home ranges in spring and autumn, but are separated during winter and summer.     

Influence of Dry Season and Food Quality and Quantity on Behavior and Feeding Strategy of Propithecus verreauxi in Kirindy, Madagascar

According to optimal foraging theory, herbivores can base food choice mainly on the quality or the quantity of food, or both. Among herbivorous primates, folivorous lemurs living in the highly seasonal environment of Madagascar have to cope with the shortage of high-quality food during the dry season, at least in deciduous forests. We studied (Verreaux's sifaka) in Kirindy, western Madagascar, to understand the influence of dry season and food quality and quantity on behavioral patterns and feeding strategy (qualitative vs. quantitative dietary choice) of a folivorous lemur in a deciduous forest. We followed 7 groups (4 groups/period; 3 individuals/group/month) during 4 periods of the year (wet season: February–March; early/middle/late dry season: May–June; July–September; October–November). We collected samples of plants eaten and examined behavioral and feeding patterns, considering food quality (macronutrients, proteins/fibers ratio, and tannins) and abundance. We found 1) a significant reduction of home range, core area, and daily path length from the wet to the dry season, possibly related to dietary change and 2) a daily period of inactivity in the dry season for energy conservation. Regarding the feeding strategy, Kirindy sifakas showed 1) high variation and selection in choosing food items and 2) a dietary choice based mainly on quality: Kirindy sifakas fed on plant species/families independently from their abundance and tannins represented a feeding deterrent during the dry season. Overall, behavioral and dietary adaptations allow Kirindy sifakas to overcome the shortage of high-quality food in the lean period.     

Effects of food supplementation on the physiological ecology of female Western diamond-backed rattlesnakes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Crotalus atrox</Emphasis>)

Food availability is an important factor in the life histories of organisms because it is often limiting and thus can affect growth, mass change, reproduction, and behaviors such as thermoregulation, locomotion, and mating. Experimental studies in natural settings allow researchers to examine the effects of food on these parameters while animals are free to behave naturally. The wide variation among organisms in energy demands and among environmental food resources suggest that responses to changes in food availability may vary among organisms. Since most supplemental feeding field experiments have been conducted on species with high energy demands, we conducted a supplemental feeding study on free-ranging, female Western diamond-backed rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox), a species with low energy demands and infrequent reproductive investment. Snakes were offered thawed rodents 1–4 times per week. Over two active seasons, we collected data on surface activity, home range size, growth, mass change, and reproduction of supplementally fed and control snakes. Fed and control snakes did not differ in surface activity levels (proportion of time encountered above versus below ground) or home range size. Fed snakes grew and gained mass faster, and had a dramatically higher occurrence of reproduction than control snakes. Also, fed snakes were in better body condition following reproduction than snakes that were not fed. However, litter characteristics such as offspring number and size were not increased by feeding, suggesting that these characteristics may be fixed. These data experimentally demonstrate that food availability can directly impact some life history traits (i.e., growth and reproduction for C. atrox), but not others (i.e., surface activity and home range size for C. atrox). The relationship between food availability and life history traits is affected in a complex way by ecological traits and physiological constraints, and thus interspecific variation in this relationship is likely to be high.     

Direct effects of physical stress can be counteracted by indirect benefits: oyster growth on a tidal elevation gradient

The paradigmatic gradient for intertidal marine organisms of increasing physical stress from low to high elevation has long served as the basis for using direct effects of duration of water coverage to predict many biological patterns. Accordingly, changes in potential feeding time may predict the direction and magnitude of differences between elevations in individual growth rates of sessile marine invertebrates. Oysters (triploid Crassostrea ariakensis) experimentally introduced at intertidal (MLW+0.05 m) and subtidal (MLW–0.25 m) elevations in racks provided a test of the ability to use duration of water coverage to predict changes in growth. During early-to-mid winter, a depression of 38–47% in shell growth of intertidal oysters matched the 36% reduction in available feeding time relative to subtidal oysters. In late winter as solar heating of exposed oysters increased, growth differences of 52–55% departed only slightly from the predicted 39%. In spring, however, duration of water coverage failed to predict even the correct direction of growth change with elevation as intertidal oysters grew 34% faster despite 39% less feeding time. Intense seasonal development of shell fouling by other suspension feeders like ascidians, mussels, and barnacles on subtidal (94% incidence) but not on aerially exposed intertidal (21–38% incidence) oysters may explain why duration of water cover failed to predict spring growth differences. Less intense fouling develops on intertidal oysters due to the physiological stress of aerial exposure on settlers, especially during higher temperatures and longer solar exposures of spring. Fouling by suspension feeders is known to reduce growth of the host through localized competition for food and added energetic costs. Thus, in springtime, indirect effects of aerial exposure providing a partial refuge from biological enemies overwhelmed direct effects of reduced duration of water coverage to reverse the expected pattern of slower intertidal growth of a marine invertebrate.     

Bioleaching of heavy metals from contaminated soil using <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans</Emphasis>: effect of sulfur/soil ratio

Bioleaching of heavy metals from contaminated soil was carried out using indigenous sulfur oxidizing bacterium Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. Experiments were carried out by varying sulfur/soil ratio from 0.03 to 0.33 to evaluate the optimum ratio for efficient bioleaching of heavy metals from soil. The influence of sulfur/soil ratio on the bioleaching efficiency was assessed based on decrease in pH, increase in oxidation–reduction potential, sulfate production and solubilization of heavy metals from the soil. Decrease in pH, increase in oxidation–reduction potential and sulfate production was found to be better with the increase in sulfur/soil ratio. While the final pH of the system with different sulfur/soil ratio was in the range of 4.1–0.7, oxidation reduction potential varied from 230 to 629 mV; sulfate production was in the range of 2,786–8,872 mg/l. Solubilization of chromium, zinc, copper, lead and cadmium from the contaminated soil was in the range of 11–99%. Findings of the study will help to optimize the ratio of sulfur/soil to achieve effective bioleaching of heavy metals from contaminated soils.