High levels of human gamma-globin gene expression in adult mice carrying a transgene of deletion-type hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin.

Persistent expression of the gamma-globin genes in adults with deletion types of hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH) is thought to be mediated by enhancer-like effects of DNA sequences at the 3' breakpoints of the deletions. A transgenic mouse model of deletion-type HPFH was generated by using a DNA fragment containing both human gamma-globin genes and HPFH-2 breakpoint DNA sequences linked to the core sequences of the locus control region (LCR) of the human beta-globin gene cluster. Analysis of gamma-globin expression in six HPFH transgenic lines demonstrated persistence of gamma-globin mRNA and peptides in erythrocytes of adult HPFH transgenic mice. Analysis of the hemoglobin phenotype of adult HPFH transgenic animals by isoelectric focusing showed the presence of hybrid mouse alpha2-human gamma2 tetramers as well as human gamma4 homotetramers (hemoglobin Bart's). In contrast, correct developmental regulation of the gamma-globin genes with essentially absent gamma-globin gene expression in adult erythroid cells was observed in two control non-HPFH transgenic lines, consistent with autonomous silencing of normal human gamma-globin expression in adult transgenic mice. Interestingly, marked preferential overexpression of the LCR-distal (A)gamma-globin gene but not of the LCR-proximal (G)gamma-globin gene was observed at all developmental stages in erythroid cells of HPFH-2 transgenic mice. These findings were also associated with the formation of a DNase I-hypersensitive site in the HPFH-2 breakpoint DNA of transgenic murine erythroid cells, as occurs in normal human erythroid cells in vivo. These results indicate that breakpoint DNA sequences in deletion-type HPFH-2 can modify the developmentally regulated expression of the gamma-globin genes.     

Roles of fetal G gamma-globin promoter elements and the adult beta-globin 3'' enhancer in the stage-specific expression of globin genes.

The human fetal G gamma-globin and adult beta-globin genes are expressed in a tissue- and developmental stage-specific pattern in transgenic mice: the G gamma gene in embryonic cells and the beta gene in fetal and adult erythroid cells. Several of the cis-acting DNA sequences thought to be responsible for these patterns of expression are located 5' to the G gamma-globin gene and 3' to the beta-globin gene. To further define the locations and functional roles of these elements, we examined the effects of 5' truncations on the expression of the G gamma-globin gene, as well as the ability of G gamma-globin upstream sequences to alter the developmental regulation of a beta-globin gene, as well as the ability of G gamma-globin upstream sequences to alter the developmental regulation of a beta-globin gene. We found that sequences between -201 and -136 are essential for expression of the G gamma-globin gene, whereas those upstream of -201 have little effect on the level or tissue or stage specificity of G gamma-globin expression. The G gamma-globin upstream sequences from -201 to -136 were, furthermore, capable of activating a linked beta-globin gene in embryonic blood cells; however, a G gamma-globin fragment from -383 to -206 was similarly active in this assay, and the complete fragment from -383 to -136 was considerably more active than either of the smaller fragments, suggesting the presence of multiple cis-acting elements for embryonic blood cells. Our data also suggested the possibility of a negative regulatory element between -201 and -136. These results are discussed in relation to several DNA elements in the G gamma-globin upstream region, which have been shown to bind nuclear factors in erythroid cells. Finally, we observed that removal of the beta-globin 3'-flanking sequences, including the 3' enhancer, from the G gamma-globin upstream-beta-globin hybrid gene resulted in a 25-fold reduction in expression in embryonic blood cells. This suggests that the beta-globin 3' enhancer is potentially active at the embryonic stage and thus cannot be solely responsible for the fetal or adult specificity of the beta-globin gene.     

A physiological delay in human fetal hemoglobin switching is associated with specific globin DNA hypomethylation

The human fetal-to-adult globin switch normally occurs on a fixed schedule, beginning at 32-34 weeks gestation, and recent studies have suggested an association between this developmental inactivation of the fetal (gamma) globin genes and the appearance of methylation within and around these genes. We have studied a population of infants in whom this switch does not occur before birth (infants of diabetic mothers, IDM) and examined the patterns of methylation surrounding their active gamma-globin genes, in comparison to the gamma-globin genes of age-matched controls who have switched their pattern of globin gene expression on schedule. All genomic DNA samples from infants with delays in the globin switch demonstrated extensive hypomethylation in the region of the gamma-globin genes, comparable to that found in the genomes of fetuses of less than 21 weeks gestation. DNA from the erythroid cells of infants of 32-40 weeks gestation had no detectable hypomethylation in the gamma-globin region. These findings support the concept that hypomethylation is an accurate developmental marker of globin gene switching, and suggest that globin gene expression in IDM may be arrested at an early preswitch stage.     

DNA sequence variants in the G gamma-, A gamma-, delta- and beta-globin genes of man

DNA prepared from 60 unrelated individuals was cleaved with one of eight different restriction endonucleases and the resulting DNA fragments were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. DNA fragments containing G gamma-, A gamma-, delta- or beta-globin genes were detected by Southern blot hybridization, using as probe either a 32P-labeled cloned DNA copy of rabbit beta-globin messenger RNA or labeled human beta- and G gamma- globin cDNA plasmids. Three types of variant restriction enzyme patterns of globin DNA fragments were detected in otherwise normal individuals. One variant pattern, found in only one person, was caused by an additional restriction endonuclease Pst I cleavage site in the center of the delta- globin gene intervening sequence; the subject was heterozygous for the presence of this cleavage site and was shown to have inherited it from her mother. Another variant pattern resulted from the appearance of an endonuclease Hind III cleavage site in the intervening sequence of the A gamma-globin gene; this variant is polymorphic, with a gene frequency for the presence of the intragenic Hind III site of 0.23. This Hind III cleavage site polymorphism is also found in the G gamma-globin gene intervening sequence and thus the polymorphism itself appears to be duplicated over the pair of gamma-globin loci. These variants can be used to derive an approximate estimate of the total number of different DNA sequence variants in man.     

Upstream G gamma-globin and downstream beta-globin sequences required for stage-specific expression in transgenic mice.

The human G gamma-globin and beta-globin genes are expressed in erythroid cells at different stages of human development, and previous studies have shown that the two cloned genes are also expressed in a differential stage-specific manner in transgenic mice. The G gamma-globin gene is expressed only in murine embryonic erythroid cells, while the beta-globin gene is active only at the fetal and adult stages. In this study, we analyzed transgenic mice carrying a series of hybrid genes in which different upstream, intragenic, or downstream sequences were contributed by the beta-globin or G gamma-globin gene. We found that hybrid 5'G gamma/3'beta globin genes containing G gamma-globin sequences upstream from the initiation codon were expressed in embryonic erythroid cells at levels similar to those of an intact G gamma-globin transgene. In contrast, beta-globin upstream sequences were insufficient for expression of 5'beta/3'G gamma hybrid globin genes or a beta-globin-metallothionein fusion gene in adult erythroid cells. However, beta-globin downstream sequences, including 212 base pairs of exon III and 1,900 base pairs of 3'-flanking DNA, were able to activate a 5'G gamma/3'beta hybrid globin gene in fetal and adult erythroid cells. These experiments suggest that positive regulatory elements upstream from the G gamma-globin and downstream from the beta-globin gene are involved in the differential expression of the two genes during development.     

A novel deletion in delta beta-thalassemia found in Japan

High molecular weight DNA from a Japanese individual homozygous for delta beta-thalassemia was analyzed by the blot hybridization technique of Southern. Results indicated a large deletion of the non-alpha-globin gene cluster, starting in the vicinity of 3' to the A gamma-globin gene and extending through the 3' side of the beta-globin gene. Persistent expression of the gamma-globin gene in adult life has been supposed to be caused by loss of a region located about 3-4 kb 5' to the delta-globin gene from comparison of the extents of deletions in several different forms of delta beta-thalassemia and HPFH (hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin). But the novel deletion found in the present case of delta beta-thalassemia suggests that the above putative regulatory region does not have this effect on expression of the gamma-globin gene. Some explanations of expression of fetal type globin genes in this delta beta-thalassemia are discussed.     

A novel type of secondary modification of two CCGG residues in the human gamma delta beta-globin gene locus

The majority of the CCGG residues in the human gamma delta beta-globin gene locus are cleaved by Msp I, irrespective of the tissue of origin of the DNA, although these sites show differential sensitivity to Hap II as a result of methylation of the internal C residue of the cleavage site (ref 6). Two CCGG sites, at homologous positions 54 nucleotides in front of the G gamma- and A gamma-globin genes respectively, are not cleaved by Msp I in DNA from several human tissues, although DNA from placenta, foetal liver and from some established cell lines is cut at these sites. We have cloned the A gamma-globin gene from foetal blood DNA where the relevant CCGG site is not cut by Msp I. After cloning, the CCGG site can be cut by Msp I. The failure to cleave at this CCGG site in foetal blood DNA therefore, is not the result of a change in the DNA sequence of the cleavage site. Most likely the external C residue and perhaps both C residues are blocked by methylation at these two specific sites.     

Interclonal variation in methylation patterns for expressed and non-expressed genes.

A mass culture of human diploid fibroblasts, and eight clones isolated from that mass culture, were examined for methylation patterns in several regions of DNA. Plasmid-inserted cDNA sequences were used as probes for alpha-hCG, beta-globin, A gamma- and G gamma-globin, and beta- and gamma-actin gene regions. Each probe revealed a different clone-specific pattern of DNA methylation, indicating a striking degree of inter-clonal heterogeneity, for those gene regions which are not normally expressed in diploid fibroblasts (alpha-hCG, gamma-globin and beta-globin). Intra-clonal variation was also evident in many instances, implying that heterogeneity could arise de novo in pure cell clones during serial passage. Thus methylation patterns, in particular for repressed genes, appear to be unstably inherited in these cells, and this instability may lead to random derepression in some cell lineages during mitotic growth.     

The beta-globin gene in Sardinian delta beta 0-thalassemia carries a C----T nonsense mutation at codon 39.

Sardinian delta beta 0-thalassemia is an inherited syndrome characterized by the inactivity of the beta-globin gene and the persistent activity of the fetal gamma-globin genes, particularly the A gamma-globin gene. Previous mapping studies with restriction enzymes failed to show any abnormality in the non-alpha globin gene cluster. We have now examined the possibility that this syndrome might result from a single rather than two different defects. Restriction enzyme polymorphisms linked to the delta beta 0-thalassemic non-alpha globin fragments were defined providing the basis for cloning the delta beta 0-thalassemic beta-globin gene from the DNA of a heterozygous patient. This gene appears to carry a C----T single mutation causing the appearance of a stop codon at amino acid position 39 of the beta-globin gene. This mutation was previously reported in beta 0-thalassemic patients, in linkage with different haplotypes. We conclude that Sardinian delta beta 0-thalassemia is the result of two separate mutations, the former one (unknown) responsible for persistent expression of gamma-globin genes, the latter for beta 0-thalassemia.     

Heterogeneity of the gamma-globin gene sequences in Japanese individuals: implication of gene conversion in generation of polymorphisms

The linked fetal globin genes (the G gamma- and A gamma-globin genes) were cloned from Japanese individuals with three different haplotypes of the HindIII polymorphisms within the gamma-globin genes. Determination of nucleotide sequences of the segment spanning from IVS2 to the 3' flanking region of each gamma-globin gene revealed that nucleotide differences are located at 43 positions and a stretch of simple GT or GC sequences. Almost half of the nucleotide changes could be accounted for by gene conversion between the G gamma- and A gamma-globin genes. We found that gene conversion had created the SacI polymorphic site just downstream of the A gamma-globin coding region. Association of the SacI polymorphic site with the HindIII polymorphic site suggests that the region containing these two sites was derived from that of the linked G gamma-globin gene through a gene conversion event. The nucleotide sequences obtained here are identical to those of the Caucasoid fetal globin genes of the same haplotypes, with the exception of some sequence changes in the hot spots of mutations. These results indicate that the sequence heterogeneity of the gamma-globin genes can be classified into three major categories according to HindIII haplotypes. The possible mechanisms of generation of the heterogeneity of the gamma-globin gene sequences are discussed.