Children’s Beliefs about Animal Minds (Child-BAM): Associations with Positive and Negative Child–Animal Interactions

Children and animals can have a great impact on each other’s lives, yet little is known about the underpinnings of these relationships. Children’s interactions with animals may be influenced by their belief in animal minds, that animals are sentient and experience thoughts and feelings. This study introduces a newly developed measure of children’s beliefs about animal minds (Child-BAM) and investigates associations between it and factors relating to positive and negative interactions with animals. Using a questionnaire-based survey of over 1,000 6- to 13-year-olds in the UK, the results show that Child-BAM was associated with higher attachment to pets (p < 0.001), compassion (p < 0.001), humane (p < 0.001) and caring behavior (p < 0.001) toward animals, emotional attachment to animals (p = 0.003), and positive attitudes toward animals (p < 0.001). Child-BAM was also associated with less acceptance of intentional animal cruelty (p = 0.001), unintentional animal cruelty (p = 0.007), and animal neglect (p = 0.01). There was a significant difference in Child-BAM between children with pets (p = 0.013), children who had a pet of their own (p = 0.016), and age group (p < 0.001). This study enhances our understanding of the psychological underpinnings of child–animal relationships and highlights the implications for animal welfare education and for preventing childhood animal cruelty.     

Applying Behavioral Conditioning to Identify Anticipatory Behaviors

The ability to predict regular events can be adaptive for nonhuman animals living in an otherwise unpredictable environment. Animals may exhibit behavioral changes preceding a predictable event; such changes reflect anticipatory behavior. Anticipatory behavior is broadly defined as a goal-directed increase in activity preceding a predictable event and can be useful for assessing well being in animals in captivity. Anticipation may look different in different animals, however, necessitating methods to generate and study anticipatory behaviors across species. This article includes a proposed method for generating and describing anticipatory behavior in zoos using behavioral conditioning. The article also includes discussion of case studies of the proposed method with 2 animals at the San Francisco Zoo: a silverback gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and a red panda (Ailurus fulgens). The study evidence supports anticipation in both animals. As behavioral conditioning can be used with many animals, the proposed method provides a practical approach for using anticipatory behavior to assess animal well being in zoos.     

Influence of Age on Stress Responses to Metabolic Cage Housing in Rats

1.We studied the effect of isolation stress in 3- and 12-month-old rats individually housed in metabolic cages for 7 days. Urine (24 hr) was collected daily from one group of animals of each age. The other group was tested in an open field and on a hot plate on days 1 and 7.2.Total deambulation in the open-field test was lower in young than in older rats both on day 1 (54.7 ± 9.9 vs 80 ± 8.9 crossings/session; P < 0.04) and on day 7 (21 ± 9 vs 48 ± 7 crossings per session; P < 0.04) and decreased significantly in the two groups when tested on day 7 (P < 0.03). Latency to paw-licking in the hot-plate test was longer in young than in older animals on day 1 (14 ± 2 vs 8 ± 4 sec; P < 0.05) but was similar in the two groups on day 7.3.Urinary excretions of norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) were determined by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Urinary NE in day 1 was similar in young and older animals (2627 ± 828 vs 3069 ± 598 ng/24 hr). In young animals NE excretion decreased along the study and was significantly (P < 0.02) lower than on day 1 during the last 3 days of the study. Conversely, in older animals urinary excretion of NE remained similar throughout the study. On day 7 urinary excretion of NE in older animals was about two fold that in young rats. Urinary E was similar in young and older rats (341 ± 127 vs 532 ± 256 ng/24 hr) on day 1 and showed a tendency to increase throughout the study.4.Urinary monoamine oxidase inhibitory (IMAO) activity was determined by testing the ability of urine extracts to inhibit rat liver MAO activity in vitro and was higher in young than in older animals throughout the study (day 1, 54.8 ± 4.2 vs 25.1 ± 5.1%; P < 0.02). In young rats excretion of IMAO was significantly higher during the last 3 days of the study than on day 1 (P < 0.05). In older animals urinary IMAO showed a tendency to increase at the end of the study.5.Isolation stress caused by housing rats in metabolic cages results in different behavioral and metabolic responses in young and older animals. Young animals exhibit a lower locomotor and analgesic response and excrete lower amounts of NE and higher IMAO activity in the urine than older rats. The metabolic and behavioral responses to isolation stress are highly dependent on the age of the animals tested. These results should be taken into consideration when designing experiments requiring the use of metabolic cages.     

“Animals Like Us”: Identifying with Nonhuman Animals and Support for Nonhuman Animal Rights

While anthropomorphizing nonhuman animals has been shown to increase identification with them and, by extension, concern for their wellbeing, little research has directly tested whether identifying with nonhuman animals is similarly associated with concern for their wellbeing. We tested hypotheses related to this premise across three cross-sectional studies. In study 1 (n = 224), we tested the hypothesis that therians—a group of people who self-identify with nonhuman animals, show greater concern for nonhuman animal rights than non-therian furries—people with a fan-like interest in media featuring anthropomorphized animal characters. In study 2 (n = 206), we further tested this hypothesis using implicit and explicit measures of identification with nonhuman animals to predict behavioral intentions to support nonhuman animal rights. In study 3 (n = 182), we tested the generalizability of our findings in a sample of undergraduate students. Taken together, the studies show that explicit, but not implicit, identification with nonhuman animals predicts greater support for their rights. The implications of these findings for research on anthropomorphism and animal rights activism are discussed, as well as the limitations of these findings and possible avenues for future research.     

Multi-drug resistant,biofilm-producing high-risk clonal lineage of Klebsiella in companion and household animals

Antimicrobial resistance is a global emergency which needs one health approach to address. The present study was conducted to detect the prevalence of beta-lactamase and biofilm-producing Klebsiella strains in rectal swabs (n = 624) collected from healthy dogs, cats, sheep and goats reared as companion or household animals in India. The dogs and cats were frequently exposed to third- or fourth-generation cephalosporins for therapy. The sheep and goats were occasionally exposed to antibiotics and had environmental exposure. Phenotypical ESBL (n = 93) and ACBL (n = 88)-producing Klebsiella were isolated significantly more (P < 0·05) from companion animals than household animals. Majority of the Klebsiella possessed bla_CTX-M-15. The sequences bla_CTX-M-15.2, bla_CTX-M-197 and bla_CTX-M-225 are reported first time from the companion animals. All ACBL-producing isolates possessed bla_AmpC. The present study detected 65·8% of Klebsiella strains as biofilm producers possessing the studied biofilm associated genes. The isolates showed phenotypical resistance against chloramphenicol, tetracycline, doxycycline, co-trimoxazole, ampicillin, cefotaxime/clavulanic acid. The present study showed that companion and household animals (dogs, cats, sheep, goats) may act as a carrier of ESBL/biofilm-producing, multi-drug resistant, high-risk clonal lineage of Klebsiella.     

Determining genetic background in captive stocks of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis)

Background As in other model organisms, genetic background in the non‐human primates Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis is an experimental variable that affects the response of other study variables. Genetic background in model organisms is manipulated by breeding schemes but is generally pre‐determined by the source population used to found captive stocks. In M. fascicularis three such sources have been distinguished, however, these are not routinely taken into consideration when designing research. Methods We exemplify a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)‐based strategy to trace the maternal geographic origins of M. fascicularis animals of unspecified origins. Results Macaca fascicularis of unspecified origins kept at primate research centers carry mtDNA haplotypes representing all three major genetic subdivisions. Conclusions We suggest that the genetic background of study animals could be better specified in the future using an mtDNA‐based approach, which would enable informed selection of study animals and help reduce variation within and among studies.     

Diet-dependent depletion of queuosine in tRNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans does not lead to a developmental block

Queuosine (Q), a hypermodified nucleoside, occurs at the wobble position of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) with GUN anticodons. In eubacteria, absence of Q affects messenger RNA (mRNA) translation and reduces the virulence of certain pathogenic strains. In animal cells, changes in the abundance of Q have been shown to correlate with diverse phenomena including stress tolerance, cell proliferation and tumour growth but the function of Q in animals is poorly understood. Animals are thought to obtain Q (or its analogues) as a micronutrient from dietary sources such as gut microflora. However, the difficulty of maintaining animals under bacteria-free conditions on Q-deficient diets has severely hampered the study of Q metabolism and function in animals. In this study, we show that as in higher animals, tRNAs in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans are modified by Q and its sugar derivatives. When the worms were fed on Q-deficient Escherichia coli, Q modification was absent from the worm tRNAs suggesting that C. elegans lacks a de novo pathway of Q biosynthesis. The inherent advantages of C. elegans as a model organism, and the simplicity of conferring a Q-deficient phenotype on it make it an ideal system to investigate the function of Q modification in tRNA.     

Temporal variability in organochlorine contamination in blood and blubber of captive Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)

Three adult captive Steller sea lions (SSL; two females, one male) housed in Alaska were longitudinally sampled for organochlorine contaminant (OC) analysis in both blubber (n= 19) and blood (n= 69) over a 2 yr period (March 2001 to March 2003). Blood OC concentrations were similar between individuals, and exhibited significant increases in summer months (July through September) relative to winter (January through March). Additionally, paired blood and blubber sample (n= 18) OC were significantly related for all animals. The relationship of blubber OC concentrations to lipid content was significant in all animals. Although limited to a small number of animals, our study results indicate that in SSLs, blood OC were both consistent among all animals and likely changed in association with physiologically driven metabolism of blubber.     

Whole‐genome association study for fatty acid composition of oleic acid in Japanese Black cattle

Fatty acid composition, especially oleic acid (C18:1), plays an important role in the eating quality of meat in Japanese Black cattle. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify loci associated with C18:1 in the intramuscular fat of the trapezius muscles in Japanese Black cattle using the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay. We also evaluated the relationship between C18:1 and three fatty acid synthesis genes, fatty acid synthase (FASN), stearoyl‐CoA desaturase and sterol regulatory element‐binding protein‐1. In this experiment, we applied a mixed model and Genomic Control approach using selective genotyping to perform a genome‐wide association study. A total of 160 animals (80 animals with higher values and 80 animals with lower values), selected from 3356 animals based on corrected phenotype, were genotyped using the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip and three fatty acid synthesis genes, and the quality of these SNPs was assessed. In this study, a total of 38 955 SNPs, which included SNPs in the three fatty acid synthesis genes, were used, and the estimated inflation factor was 1.06. In the studied population, a total of 32 SNPs, including the FASN gene, had significant effects, and in particular 30 SNPs of all significant SNPs were located between 49 and 55 Mbp on chromosome 19. This study is one of the first genome‐wide association studies for fatty acid composition in a cattle population using the recently released Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip.     

Role of antibodies and effect of BCG vaccination in experimental candidiasis in mice

The role of humoral antibodies and the effect of BCG vaccination were studied in the experimental candidiasis in mice. The antibody suppressed, B-cell deficient animals were prepared by repeated administration of rabbit anti-mouse--antiserum to the new born mice from birth onwards. Such immunodeficient animals along with controls were infected intravenously with Candida albicans, to study the course of candidal infection. It was observed that B-cell-deficient animals were found to be more susceptible to candidal infection than the controls, as indicated by their steady loss of body weight, longer mean time to death and higher viable counts of candidal cells in different organs. The anti-candidal antibodies were absent in all B-cell-deficient animals but present in the controls. These results suggest that antibodies make a contribution in protection against candidal infection in mice. The BCG vaccinated animals were prepared by repeated intravenous administration of BCG to mice and these vaccinated animals along with unvaccinated controls were challenged intravenously with C. albicans, to study the course of candidal infection. It was observed that BCG vaccination prolonged meantime to death and reduced the number of candidal cells in their kidneys.     

Characterisation of chloride currents across the proximal colon in CftrTgH(neoim)1Hgu congenic mice

It was the aim of the present study to investigate chloride secretion across the proximal colon of Cftr ^{TgH(neoim)1Hgu} congenic mice. Stripped epithelia were incubated in Ussing chambers and the electrophysiological data were compared between cystic fibrosis (CF) animals and wild type (WT) animals. In comparison with the control animals, all Cftr ^{TgH(neoim)1Hgu} congenic mice had a distinctly reduced basal chloride secretion and a reduced chloride secretion after stimulation with carbachol and forskolin. When comparing chloride secretion across the proximal colon between WT animals, all mice showed a comparable pattern of response to carbachol and forskolin but quantitative differences, BALB/c exhibiting the highest and HsdOla:MF1 exhibiting the lowest increase in Cl current. Likewise, all CF animals showed the same reaction pattern to carbachol and forskolin, but there was no distinct difference that lasted for the whole measurement. To investigate interferences between Ca- and cyclic adenosine monophosphate-activated pathways of Cl secretion in CF animals, we studied epithelia from CF/3CF/1F1 animals with a mixed background. In these animals, the levels of the carbachol or forskolin-induced chloride currents did not depend on the prestimulation with the respective other secretagogue. 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid, which blocks calcium-activated chloride channels, reduced the current response to carbachol by about 23%. This result, obtained in BALB/c-Cftr ^{TgH(neoim)1Hgu} mice, indicates that alternative chloride channels might be present in the proximal colon of these mice. In contrast, there was no evidence for alternative chloride conductances in BALB/c WT animals, but we cannot exclude that in WT mice a higher chloride secretion via Cftr-channels may have masked an alternative chloride secretion.     

A Long-Term Study of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neospora caninum</Emphasis> Infection in a Swedish Dairy Herd

A longitudinal study was performed in a Swedish dairy herd where Neospora caninum had been isolated from a stillborn calf. Starting in autumn 1994, blood samples from all female animals in the herd were collected once yearly until 1999. The sera were analysed for presence of IgG₁ antibodies to N. caninum by the iscom ELISA, and by an avidity ELISA to establish the timing of infection. In addition, data on reproductive performance were compiled. During the study the percentage of seropositive female animals increased from 63% to 87%. In 1994 a large number of young animals tested seropositive although their dams were seronegative, indicating that a transmission of the parasite other than the vertical had recently occurred. Low avidity values supported this assumption. The annual abortion rate increased from a mean of 2% before the initiation of the study to 9% in 1994–1998. During the same time, as judged by the avidity data, a large proportion of the animals shifted from being recently to being chronically infected. The source of the external infection in the herd could not be identified.     

Toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans isolated from a hunting dog and its diphtheria toxin antibody titer

Toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans is a zoonotic pathogen that produces diphtheria toxin and causes a diphtheria‐like illness in humans. The organism is known to infect and circulate among dogs, which can then transmit it to humans. Furthermore, previous studies have found that C. ulcerans is carried by wild animals, including game animals. In the present study, we tested hunting and companion dogs for the presence of toxigenic C. ulcerans and succeeded in isolating the bacterium from a hunting dog. Moreover, several hunting dogs had serum diphtheria antitoxin titers that were higher than the titers required for protection in humans, suggesting a history of exposure to toxigenic Corynebacterium strains. Notably, ribotyping, pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis and tox gene sequencing demonstrated that the isolate from the hunting dog clustered with previously characterized C. ulcerans strains isolated from wild animals, as opposed to groups of isolates from humans and companion dogs. Interestingly, the wild animal cluster also contains an isolate from an outdoor breeding dog, which could have formed a bridge between isolates from wild animals and those from companion dogs. The results presented herein provide insight into the mechanism by which the zoonotic pathogen C. ulcerans circulates among wild animals, hunting and companion dogs, and humans.     

Distribution and morphological characters of intermediate forms between the black lemur (Eulemur macaco macaco) and the Sclater's lemur (E. m. flavifrons)

A study of intermediate forms betweenEulemur macaco macaco andE. m. flavifrons was performed on animals in different areas located to the north, south, and east of the known limits of distribution in Maromandia. A large hybridization zone was defined and morphological and dermatoglyphic comparisons were done on the different animals.     

Population status and feeding habits of the translocated sub-population of Hunter's antelope or hirola (Beatragus hunteri,Sclater, 1889) in Tsavo East National Park,Kenya

The population status and feeding habits of Hunter's antelope or hirola (Beatragus hunteri) in Tsavo East National Park were determined in this study in 1995. This is the first study that has ever been undertaken on the hirola population of about 20 animals that were translocated to Tsavo East National Park from South Garissa District in 1963. Relevant data and information were collected using different ecological research techniques. A total of eight nursery herds (5–11 individuals per herd) comprising 60 individuals, five lone bulls and 11 lone sub-adults was observed. This gave a total population estimate of 76 animals in the entire study area. Adult animals dominated the population (60.53%), indicating a population skew towards adults. The adult sex ratio was biased towards females (43.42%). Hirola were observed to feed mainly on short, green grasses. The dominant feed species were Panicum infestum, Digitaria rivae, Latipes senegalensis and Cenchrus ciliaris. Occasionally, hirola was observed to feed on forbs (e.g. Portulaca oleraceae, Tephrosia subtriglora and Commelina erecta). Results of this study show that the population growth of the hirola sub-population in the Park has been low (1.8 individuals per year). Factors thought to contribute to this low growth include predation and low genetic variability.     

Metabolic rates and the energetic cost of external tag attachment in juvenile blacktip sharks Carcharhinus limbatus

This study reports on the metabolic rate of the blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus and the energetic costs of external tag attachment. Metabolic rates, swimming speed and tail‐beat (B_T) frequency were measured in a static respirometer with untagged animals and animals equipped with a small data logger. Tagged sharks showed significantly higher routine oxygen consumption and lower swimming speeds than untagged animals, indicating that tagging significantly affected the swimming efficiency and energetic requirements in these small sharks, and that these effects must be accounted for when interpreting telemetry data from free‐ranging individuals.     

Waterborne transmission ofCampylobacter enteritis

Campylobacter jejuni is an important cause of human diarrheal disease throughout the world and likeSalmonella enteritidis, has a large animal reservoir which includes most of man's domestic animals. Until recently, it has been difficult to trace the chain of transmission from animals to man because of inadequate environmental sampling techniques and means to distinguish strains. Recent improvements in these techniques have made environmental studies more feasible in 2 water-related out-breaks.In 1 study,C. jejuni was found to be an important cause of sporadic, summertime diarrheal disease among hikers in national wilderness areas of Wyoming. In this setting, illness was significantly associated with drinking untreated surface water. SubsequentlyC. jejuni was isolated from surface water, including mountian streams, and from animals in the area. Some of the environmental isolates were serotypically identical to strains isolated from humans.A second study occurred as a result of an outbreak of Campylobacter enteritis in a community in northern Illinois which was epidemiologically associated with the community water system.Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from several surface water sources and from the implicated water system. These studies demonstrate that environmental isolation ofC. jejuni is now possible and may add to our understanding of disease transmission.     

Retrofitting ampicillin resistant vectors by recombination for use in generating C. elegans transgenic animals by bombardment

Caenorhabditis elegans is an important model organism for modern biologic research. An essential aspect of C. elegans research is the production of transgenic animals for study. These are often generated via microinjection, but biolistic bombardment has become increasingly popular. However, many of the plasmids previously generated for use in microinjection are not readily used for bombardment due to the lack of a convenient marker. The unc-119 gene is often used as a marker since unc-119 rescue can be observed at low magnification, allowing rescued animals to be easily distinguished from the larger number of non-rescued animals. Here we report the use of homologous recombination in Escherichia coli as a method to insert a cassette containing the unc-119 gene into commonly used plasmids at the site of the ampicillin resistance gene which is simpler than other methods like subcloning. These cassettes are flanked by regions homologous to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the ampicillin resistance gene and contain either the unc-119 gene and the kanamycin resistance gene or a unc-119:mCherry fusion gene and the kanamycin resistance gene. The resulting plasmids may be used for biolistic bombardment to yield animals that display unc-119 rescue, and also express the recipient plasmid transgene.     

T-2 toxin impairment of murine response to Salmonella typhimurium: a histopathologic assessment

T-2 toxin and other trichothecene mycotoxins experimentally impair normal immune function and may predispose humans and animals to infectious disease. In this study, the histopathologic effects of Salmonella typhimurium challenge concurrently with sublethal T-2 toxin exposure were examined in the Salmonella-resistant C3H/HeN mouse. Oral administration of T-2 toxin (1 mg/kg) every other day for 10 d had little effect on the tissues examined when compared to control animals. Mice challenged with S. typhimurium and then treated with T-2 toxin every other day for 10 d had markedly larger and more bacterial-related lesions in the spleens, kidneys, and livers than animals challenged with S. typhimurium alone. Differences in bone marrow, Peyer's patches and ileal tissues were less discernable between S. typhimurium and S. typhimurium plus T-2 toxin treated groups. These results were consistent with previous findings that T-2 toxin compromised murine resistance to S. typhimurium infection and ultimately caused death in animals challenged with a sublethal dose of the organism.