New data on parasitization of Glossina palpalis palpalis (Diptera: Glossinidae) by Hexamermis glossinae (Nematoda: Mermithidae) in a forested area of Ivory Coast

Observations on the parasitism of Glossina palpalis palpalis by Hexamermis glossinae were carried out over a period of one year by catching flies at Abengourou, Aboisso and Daloa (forested area of Ivory Coast). No parasite is observed out of 2,168 Glossina palpalis palpalis caught in Abengourou and 9,732 in Aboisso. At Daloa, dissections of 7,341 Glossina reveal 1.75% parasited flies. All the worms were located in the abdominal cavity, loosely intertwined with the internal organ. Males were more infested than females (2.68% versus 1.26%). The parasites were more abundant among the nulliparous (2.30%) than the young parous (1.19%) and than the old parous (0.52%). The majority of infected flies were caught at the beginning of the rainy season (5.17%) and few in the dry season (0.23%). The low parasitic infection rate observed here indicates a minimal effect on the population dynamics of the vector of sleeping sickness in Ivory Coast.     

Performance of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes reared under simple laboratory conditions

A simple grass-thatched hut was used to rear Glossina pallidipes Austen. Constructed to allow free flow of air, the temperature and humidity inside correspond to that of the outside environment. Pupae used to start the colony were obtained from pregnant females from Lambwe Valley, Western Kenya. Nine day-old females were paired with 12 day-old males for 7 days after which they were separated.Colony performance was evaluated on the basis of female survival, number and weight of puparia produced, and mortality rates. The emergence rate of puparia weighing more than 30 mg was above 80%. Data on the performance of the colony between June 1985 and June 1986 are presented. We suggest that the simple nature of the rearing facility and its direct contact with the outside environment have facilitated the colonization of the flies.

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Résumé Une cage très simple, conçue pour assurer l'arrivé d'air, et le maintien de l'humidité et de loa température extérieure, a été employée pour conserver et élever G. pallidipes. Les pupes utilisées pour constituer la souche provenaient de Lambwe valley (ouest du Kénya). Des couples de femelles vieilles de 9 jours et de mâles de 12 jours ont été consitués, les sexes ont ensiute été séparés. La performance de la souche a été estimée en fonction de la survie des femelles et du nombre et du poids des pupes produites, et des taux de mortalité. Plus de 80% des pupes ont pesé 30 mg et plus, et le taux d'émergence a été de 80%. Les résultats fournis concernent les performances observées entre juin 1985 et juin 1986. Nous estimons que la simplicité du dispositif d'élevage et le contact direct avec les conditions écologiques externes ont facilité l'éstablissement de la souche.

     

Salivary gland hyperplasia in wild caught tsetse from Zimbabwe

Hypertrophied salivary glands were collected from wild populations of the tsetse flies Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood and G. pallidipes Austen in the Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. Examination of the glands by electron microscopy showed that the associated virus was identical in form in both species. The incidence of salivary gland hypertrophy was significantly higher in G. pallidipes than in G.m.morsitans, and 83% of the enlarged glands of the former were, in addition, found to be infected with Rickettsia-like organisms. There was no indication from this small sample that viral infections predisposed flies to infections with trypanosomes.

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Résumé Des glandes salivaires hypertrophiées ont été extraites de Glossina morsitans et de G. pallidipes provenant de populations sauvages capturées dans la vallée du Zambèze au Zimbabwe. L'examen des glandes au microscope électronique a montré que la forme du virus associé était identique dans les deux espèces. La fréquence d'hypertrophie des glandes salivaires était significativement plus élevée chez G. pallidipes que chez G. morsitans et la fréquence des glandes hypertrophiées de G. pallidides contaminèes par des organismes ressemblant à des Rickettsia était de 0,02. Rien n'indique à partir de ce petit échantillon que la contamination virale favorise l'infection par des trypanosomes.

     

Polytene chromosome maps in four species of tsetse flies Glossina austeni, G. pallidipes, G. morsitans morsitans and G. m. submorsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae): a comparative analysis

Photographic polytene chromosome maps from pupal trichogen cells of four tsetse species, Glossina austeni, G. pallidipes, G. morsitans morsitans and G. m. submorsitans were constructed and compared. The homology of chromosomal elements between the species was achieved by comparing banding patterns. The telomeric and subtelomeric chromosome regions were found to be identical in all species. The pericentromeric regions were found to be similar in the X chromosome and the left arm of L1 chromosome (L1L) but different in L2 chromosome and the right arm of L1 chromosome (L1R). The L2 chromosome differs by a pericentric inversion that is fixed in the three species, G. pallidipes, G. morsitans morsitans and G. m. submorsitans. Moreover, the two morsitans subspecies appeared to be homosequential and differ only by two paracentric inversions on XL and L2L arm. Although a degree of similarity was observed across the homologous chromosomes in the four species, the relative position of specific chromosome regions was different due to chromosome inversions established during their phylogeny. However, there are regions that show no apparent homology between the species, an observation that may be attributed to the considerable intra—chromosomal rearrangements that have occurred following the species divergence. The results of this comparative analysis support the current phylogenetic relationships of the genus Glossina.     

The finite element implementation of a K.P.P. equation for the simulation of tsetse control measures in the vicinity of a game reserve

An equation, strongly reminiscent of Fisher’s equation, is used to model the response of tsetse populations to proposed control measures in the vicinity of a game reserve. The model assumes movement is by diffusion and that growth is logistic. This logistic growth is dependent on an historical population, in contrast to Fisher’s equation which bases it on the present population. The model therefore takes into account the fact that new additions to the adult fly population are, in actual fact, the descendents of a population which existed one puparial duration ago, furthermore, that this puparial duration is temperature dependent. Artificially imposed mortality is modelled as a proportion at a constant rate. Fisher’s equation is also solved as a formality.The temporary imposition of a 2 % day⁻¹ mortality everywhere outside the reserve for a period of 2 years will have no lasting effect on the influence of the reserve on either the Glossina austeni or the G. brevipalpis populations, although it certainly will eradicate tsetse from poor habitat, outside the reserve. A 5 km-wide barrier with a minimum mortality of 4 % day⁻¹, throughout, will succeed in isolating a worst-case, G. austeni population and its associated trypanosomiasis from the surrounding areas. A more optimistic estimate of its mobility suggests a mortality of 2 % day⁻¹ will suffice. For a given target-related mortality, more mobile species are found to be more vulnerable to eradication than more sedentary species, while the opposite is true for containment.     

Responses of the tsetse fly, Glossina pallidipes, to ox odour, carbon dioxide and a visual stimulus in the laboratory

The responses of male and female Glossina pallidipes Austen to a visual target were recorded in a slow-speed wind tunnel, using a video system. Addition of ox odour or carbon dioxide at an equivalent concentration to the airstream resulted in an increase in flight activity and a marked increase in flies alighting on the visual target. In the absence of ox odour flights were characterised by a number of collisions with the walls and ceiling of the cage used to retain the flies, whereas in the presence of ox odour the flies circled around the centre of the cage avoiding the edges. Removal of the visual target did not alter this response. The results are discussed in the light of field observations on the behaviour of G. pallidipes around baited targets. When flies were observed in groups, mutual disturbance increased the activity during control periods thus masking the activating effect of ox odour. The activity of individual flies occurred in bursts (22.1 s mean duration) consisting of a number of flights (3.3 s mean duration) and longer periods of inactivity (85.8 s mean duration). The burst lenght did not change when ox odour was added to the airstream but the number of flights per burst increased. These results are discussed in relation to the random dispersal theory of tsetse populations.

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Résumé Les réactions de G. pallidipes mâles et femelles, à l'odeur de vache, au gaz carbonique et à des stimulations visuelles ont été enregittrées sur un système vidéo, lors d'expériences dans un tunnel à vent à faible vitesse. Les adultes ont été mis à jeûner pendant 3 jours après leur premier repas, avant d'être introduits à l'intérieur du tunnel à vent dans une cage en fil nylon, conçue pour maintenir les mouches dans le champ de la caméra. Dans les premières expériences, 10 mouches ont été observées simultanément. L'introduction d'odeur de vache ou de CO₂ n'a augmenté l'activité d'aucun des deux sexes, mais a brutalement accru le nombre de vols s'achevant sur une cible mate noire. Une étude plus précise et continue pendant 60 minutes, de groupes de 5 mâles et de 5 femelles, a révélé que les envols n'étaient pas indépendants et que les perturbations mutuelles avaient masqué l'action stimulante de l'odeur de vache et du CO₂. Pour surmonter le problème des perturbations mutuelles, les mouches ont été observées individuellement. Mâles et femelles ont répondu par une augmentation de l'activité de vol à l'introduction d'odeur de vache dans le courant d'air. Les mâles ne se sont posés sur les cibles que dans les minutes ayant suivi l'addition d'odeur de vache, tandis que les femelles se sont posées tout le long de l'expérience, le nombre d'atterrissages s'étant accru significativement avec l'addition d'odeur de vache. L'odeur de vache a modifié le type de vol, passant du vol au hasard entraînant de nombreuses collisions avec les parois et le plafond de la cage, à un vol plus direct provoquant le tournoiement des mouches dans la cage. Par ailleurs, ce comportement a subsisté après le retrait des cibles mates noires de la cage. On peut en conclure que l'odeur de vache active les femelles et augmente la perception visuelle du paysage. L'activité de G. pallidipes avait lieu avec de brêves poussées (durée moyenne 22,1 secondes) de nombreux vols, suivies de périodes d'inactivité plus longues (durée moyenne 85,8 secondes). La durée moyenne d'un vol était de 3,3 s. Partant de ces données et d'une vitesse de vol estimée à 5,0 m/s, la longeur d'un vol élémentaire pour une dispersion théoriquement au hasard, est 16,5 m. La durée de la poussée d'activité n'a pas changé avec l'introduction d'odeur de vache, mais le nombre de vols par poussée a augmenté, et bien qu'il ait été impossible de comparer la durée des périodes de repos avec et sans odeur, des expériences précédentes suggèrent qu'elles devraient diminuer en présence d'odeur.

     

Occurrence and impact ofPhytomyza orobanchia [Diptera: Agromyzidae] onOrobanche crenata [Orobanchaceae] in Syria

A survey was carried out in 1988 to determine the occurrence and distribution of the flyPhytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach [Diptera: Agromyzidae] on broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forskal) at 21 locations in northwestern Syria. Fruit capsules of broomrape were examined in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) fields. The fly was present at 95% of the locations sampled. Of 630 broomrape plants examined over all locations, 55.5% were infested. Of the 1,890 capsules examined, 32.5% were attacked. Fly populations were highest near the coast where 79% of the broomrapes were damaged. The total seed output of broomrape plants was reduced by 29.4% in the surveyed area due to a mean seed destruction of 91.1% per infested broomrape capsule.      

Polymorphic microsatellite markers for the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (Diptera: Glossinidae), a vector of human African trypanosomiasis

Our understanding of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, a major vector of sleeping sickness, has been severely constrained by a lack of genetic markers for mapping and population genetic studies. Here we present 10 newly developed microsatellite loci for this tsetse species. Heterozygosity levels in Moyo, an Ugandan population, averaged 0.57, with only two loci showing very low heterozygosity. Five loci carried more than six alleles. Together with five recently published microsatellite loci, this brings the number of available microsatellite loci for this species to 15. Their availability will greatly facilitate future studies on the genetics of this important human disease vector.     

Investigations on the parasitism ofOtiorrhynchus salicicola andO. Sulcatus [Col.: Curculionidae] byHeterorhabditis sp. [Nematoda]

Experiments were conducted to study the efficacy of the insect parasitic nematodeHeterorhabditis sp. (HW79) as a biological control agent ofOtiorrhynchus salicicola. This weevil species is reported as a pest of ornamental plants in Switzerland and Italy. Dipping plastic boxes containing heavily infested cuttings of laurel (Prunus laurocerasus) in a nematode suspension resulted in approximately 100% parasitisation of full-grown larvae, pupae and non-emerged young adults. The average dose resulting from dipping varied between 56,000 and 62,000 nematodes per liter soil. This experiment was run under natural outdoor conditions. In a further outdoor experiment, pottedLigustrum plants were inoculated with eggs ofO. salicicola and later 20,000 infective juvenile nematodes per liter soil were added to the soil surface. The resulting weevil mortality in the treated pots was 78%. In seven greenhouse tests using the same nematode dose in pots with horticultural soil to which weevil larvae had been added, weevil mortality varied between 76% and 100%, the arithmetic average being 90%. These results indicate that Heterorhabditid nematodes may provide an effective means of controllingO. salicicola. In an other experiment usingO. sulcatus larvae, the influence of application time on nematode efficacy was investigated. When nematodes were added a few days before weevil larvae had hatched from the eggs, no parasitic effect was obtained. Nematode applications done shortly after larval hatching however, resulted in complete weevil control. These results are of significance in timing nematode applications in practice.      

Persistent courtship reduces male and female longevity in captive tsetse flies Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood (Diptera: Glossinidae)

Where males can increase their mating success by harassing femalesuntil they accept copulation, harassing tactics can be expectedto evolve to a point where they have costs to the longevityof both sexes. By experimentally manipulating the sex ratioin captive groups of tsetse flies Glossina morsitans morsitans,we demonstrated that the longevity of females declines wheresex ratios are biased toward males, while the longevity of malesdeclines where the sex ratio is biased toward females. Neitherirradiation of males nor prevention of copulation by blockingor damaging the external male genitalia increased the longevityof females caged with them, suggesting that female longevitywas reduced by the physical aspects of male harassment ratherthan by components of the ejaculate     

Oviposition behaviour ofEphedrus cerasicola [Hym.: Aphidiidae] parasitizing different instars of its aphid host

The parasitoidEphedrus cerasicola Starý oviposited in all 4 nymphal instars and in newly moulted adults ofMyzus persicae (Sulzer). The different host categories were offered with no choice. The duration of an oviposition increased with the age of nymphs, being about 13, 18, 21, 22, and 17 s from 1 st instars to adults, respectively. Observations of number of stabbing attacks prior to oviposition, percent of the encounters not resulting in oviposition, time from first encounter to oviposition, handling time and aphid defensive behaviour also indicated that 1 st instarM. persicae are most easily parasitized. The behaviour ofE. cerasicola in encounters with unparasitized and parasitized hosts, suggested that the parasitoid could discriminate. In encounters with parasitized 1 st to 4th instar aphids,E. cerasicola used only the antennae in 80% of the encounters that resulted in discrimination.     

Hydrellia spp. [Diptera: Ephydridae] attackingHydrilla verticillata in south India

The leaf-mining fliesHydrellia sp. andH. pakistanae Deonier were observed attacking the aquatic weedHydrilla verticillata (L.f.) L.C. (Hydrocharitaceae) in south India. Their life histories were very similar. The duration of the immature stages ofH. pakistanae was 25 to 29 days. The number of leaves ofH. verticillata mined by a single larva varied from 8 to 12. In the laboratory, adults feeding on 50% aqueous solution of honey lived for 6 to 21 days and laid an average of 26 eggs. Several overlapping generations occurred in the field except during the period of drought. BothHydrellia sp. andH. pakistanae were heavily parasitized by the braconidsAdemon sp. nr.decrescens Nees andChaenusa sp.      

Laboratory biology and host range ofHydrellia balciunasi [Diptera: Ephydridae]

Hydrellia balciunasi Bock, a native of Australia, was evaluated in quarantine in Florida, USA, for its potential as a biocontrol agent of the submersed aquatic weed,Hydrilla verticillata (L.f) Royle. Larvae are leafminers. Mean total development time at 27°C was 22.8 days. Mean duration of the egg stage was 3.0 days, larval was 11.5 days, and puparial was 8.3 days. Mean fecundity was 35.5 eggs. Mean female longevity was 19.7 days, and mean male longevity was 15.6 days. The sex ratio was 1.1∶1 (male: female). Fourteen plant species closely related to hydrilla in 4 families plus rice were tested in no-choice larval development tests and an additional 27 plant species in 16 families were tested in multi-choice tests. Larvae mined in 2 test plant species,Potamogeton pusillus L. andP. crispus L., but developed (1%) only on the introduced weedP. crispus L. Females oviposited on most test plants. Permission to release this fly in the United States was received from federal and state (Florida) officials, and it was released from quarantine on 24 May 1989.      

Suitability ofDacus dorsalis andCeratitis capitata [Diptera: Tephritidae] as hosts of the parasitoid,Biosteres arisanus [Hymenoptera: Braconidae]

Biosteres arinsanus (Sonan) (=B. oophilus Fullaway) showed a strong preference forDacus dorsalis Hendel overCeratitis capitata (Wiedemann) in choice tests using papaya fruits infested with eggs of both hosts in laboratory studies. In laboratory and field studiesD. dorsalis was the most suitable host. A total of 13,871 parasitoids was produced fromD. dorsalis infested fruits compared with 2,772 fromC. capitata infested fruits.      

Comparative studies on the relative efficiency of two trap types for two allopatric populations of Glossina pallidipes in Kenya

Comparative studies on the relative efficiency of two types of trap, commonly used for catching Glossina pallidipes Austin, the Langridge Box Screen (LBS) and the Awning Screen Skirt(ASS), were carried out for two allopatric populations of this species in Kenya. The relative efficiency of the two traps is different in the two populations. The ASS is more efficient than the LBS in collecting flies of one population, but not of the other. The test of independence indicates that the sex ratio in the catches is independent of the type of trap, but dependent on the population. The results indicate that the ASS is preferable to the LBS for sampling G. pallidipes. It is concluded that the difference in efficiency is related to behavioral differences between the flies of the two populations.

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Résumé Deux types de pièges, utilisés fréquemment pour capturer Glossina pallidipes, — le Langridge Box Screen (LBS) et le Awning Screen Skirt (ASS) — ont été comparés sur deux populations allopatriques au Kenya. Deux pièges de chaque type ont été utilisés, soit quatre pièges dans chaque zone. L'étude des influences du site a été introduite. L'efficacité relative des deux types de pièges est différente pour les deux populations. ASS capture plus de Glossina pallidipes que LBS dans une population, mais pas dans l'autre. Un test d'indépendance (G. test) montre que le taux sexuel est indépendant du type de piège, mais pas de la population.Dans chaque zone, des nombres significativement différents de mouches ont été capturées dans les quatre sites, mais il n'y avait que de faibles différences entre les taux sexuels et les taux de captures de LBS et ASS. Ces dernières ne peuvent cependant, expliquer les différences observées entre les deux zones. La densité de population et les méthodes de capture ne peuvent expliquer — par suite de l'influence du site — les résultats différents des deux types de pièges entre les deux zones; on peut en conclure que les différences sont provoquées par des comportements différents des deux populations.ASS est le type de piège le plus efficace pour capturer Glossina pallidipes. Dans les deux zones, ASS capture le plus grand nombre de mouches, sans altération du taux sexuel, et présente le plus faible facteur de variation.

     

Genetic and behavioral differences between Glossina pallidipes from Uganda and Zimbabwe

Populations of Glossina pallidipes from opposite ends of the species range were studied in the laboratory. Flies from Uganda had a higher reproductive rate than flies from Zimbabwe but produced slightly smaller offspring. The Zimbabwe flies were noticeably less willing to mate than those from Uganda under identical conditions but cross-breeding experiments resulted in similar reproductive rates regardless of the origin of the sexes; unwillingness to mate could not be attributed to one or other sex of the Zimbabwe flies. The F1 male hybrids showed normal fertility when back-crossed to females of maternal origin. Hence there is no indication that speciation has occurred. The flies from Zimbabwe possess supernumerary (B) chromosomes which are absent from the Uganda population. C-banding techniques showed the presence of a heavilybanded Y-chromosome in the Uganda flies while that of the Zimbabwe flies was featureless. The origin of the male parent in hybrids was clearly identifiable from an examination of the Y-chromosome while supernumeraries were present in the offspring from both crosses but in smaller numbers than in the Zimbabwe parents. The possession of supernumerary chromosomes is discussed in relation to the fitness of a population within a particular natural or laboratory environment.

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Résumé Des populations de Glossina pallidipes des extrémités opposées de l'aire de l'espèce ont été examinées au laboratoire. Les mouches de l'Ouganda ont un taux de reproduction plus élevé que celles du Zimbabwe, mais produisent des descendants légèrement plus petits. En conditions identiques, les mouches du Zimbabwe sont nettement moins disposées à s'accoupler que celles de l'Ouganda, mais les expériences de croisements donnent les mêmes taux de reproduction quelle que soit l'origine des sexes; le peu d'ardeur à l'accouplement ne peut être attribué à l'un ou l'autre sexe des mouches du Zimbabwe. Les mâles hybrides de F₁ sont totalement fertiles quand ils sont croisés en retour avec des femelles d'origine maternelle. Ainsi il n'y a aucun indice de subspéciation en cours. Les mouches du Zimbabwe ont un chromosome surnuméraire (B) absent de la population de l'Ouganda. Les techniques de banding C ont révélé la présence d'une bande très nette sur le chromosome Y des mouches de l'Ouganda, tandis que celles du Zimbabwe ne présentent pas ce caractère. L'origine du parent mâle des hybrides est facilement identifiable par examen du chromosome Y; par contre les chromosomes surnuméraires sont présents chez les descendants des deux types de croisements, mais en plus petit nombre que chez les parents du Zimbabwe. La possession de chromosomes surnuméraires est discutée en relation avec l'adaptabilité d'une population dans un habitat naturel particulier ou au laboratoire.

     

Host-handling behavior of the parasitoid,Diglyphus minoeus [Hym.: Eulophidae], parasitizing the honeysuckle leaf-miner,Phytomyza lonicerae [Dipt.: Agromyzidae]

The host-handling behavior of individual female waspsDiglyphys minoeus which attack the larvae of the honeysuckle leaf-miner,Phytomyza lonicerae, include 4 types of behavior: probing, ovipositor insertion, host-feeding, and resting. Ovipositor insertion may either be injection of venom, probing of the host by the sensilla on the ovipositor's tip or egg laying. Three types of attacks were distinguished: oviposition attack for unparasitized larvae, host-feeding attack for unparasitized host larvae and host rejection for previously parasitized host larvae. Oviposition attack was characterized by frequent alternation between probing and ovipositor insertion, long duration of ovipositor insertion and resting, and the long duration of host-handling. Resting behavior is thought to protect the progeny against superparasitism, host-feeding by other wasps or hosts' recovery from paralysis. Host-feeding attack was characterized by frequent alternation between host-feeding and ovipositor insertion and long duration of host-feeding. Host rejection was composed mainly of probing and ovipositor insertion and short handling time.      

Horizontal transmission of mycotic infection in adult tsetse,Glossina morsitans morsitans

AdultGlossina morsitans morsitans exposed to wet conidia ofBeauveria bassiana andMetarhizium anisopliae suffered high mortalities ranging from 90 to 100% by 2 weeks post-exposure. Infected ♂ ♂ maintained in the same cages with non-infected ♀♀ throughout the experimental period transmitted the fungal infection to the ♀♀ resulting in mortalities of 65% withB. bassiana and 55% withM. anisopliae. Likewise, infected ♀♀ maintained together with non-infected ♂♂ transmitted the infection to the ♂♂ resulting in mortalities of 75% withB. bassiana and 45% withM. anisopliae. Female tsetse flies infected withB. bassiana andM. anisopliae and maintained in the same cages with non-infected ♀♀ also transmitted infection to the non-infected tsetse resulting in mortalities of 62% and 48% withB. bassiana andM. anisopliae respectively. Infected tsetse exposed to non-infected tsetse of the opposite sex for only 30 min were also able to transmit the fungal infection. Pupae produced by female tsetse infected withB. bassiana andM. anisopliae exhibited higher pupal mortality than those produced by non-infected ♀♀. However, pupae exposed directly to dry spores ofB. bassiana andM. anisopliae had no increase in pupal mortality but adults emerging from theB. bassiana-exposed pupae had markedly reduced longevity.