Suitability criteria for measures of urban sprawl

Rapid increase of urban sprawl in many countries worldwide has become a major concern because of its detrimental effects on the environment. Existing measures of urban sprawl suffer from a confusing variety of differing, and sometimes contradictory, interpretations of the term “urban sprawl”. Therefore, results from different studies cannot usually be compared to each other and are difficult to interpret consistently. Every meaningful method to measure the degree of urban sprawl needs to be based on a clear definition of “urban sprawl” disentangling causes and consequences of urban sprawl from the phenomenon of urban sprawl itself, as urban sprawl has differing causes and consequences in different regions and regulatory contexts. This paper contributes to the development of more reliable measures of urban sprawl by providing clarifications to the definition of “urban sprawl” and by developing a set of 13 suitability criteria for measures of urban sprawl.Our study proceeds in three steps. First, it proposes a clear definition of urban sprawl that is based on an evaluation of existing urban sprawl definitions. Second, it derives from this definition 13 suitability criteria for measures of urban sprawl. These criteria are useful to systematically evaluate the consistency and reliability of existing and future metrics of urban sprawl. The 13 criteria include (1) intuitive interpretation, (2) mathematical simplicity, (3) modest data requirements, (4) low sensitivity to very small patches of urban area, (5) monotonous response to increases in urban area, (6) monotonous response to increasing distance between two urban patches when within the scale of analysis, (7) monotonous response to increased spreading of three urban patches, (8) same direction of the metric's responses to the processes in criteria 5, 6 and 7, (9) continuous response to the merging of two urban patches, (10) independence of the metric from the location of the pattern of urban patches within the reporting unit, (11) continuous response to increasing distance between two urban patches when they move beyond the scale of analysis, (12) mathematical homogeneity (i.e., intensive or extensive measure), and (13) additivity (i.e., additive or area-proportionately additive measure). Third, we illustrate the application of the 13 criteria by systematically assessing three existing measures of urban sprawl. We conclude that suitability criteria help understand the behavior of metrics intended to measure urban sprawl and to identify the most suitable measures. This article is the first part of a set of two papers.     

绿量的城市热环境效应研究现状与展望

绿量对城市热环境的调控功能已成为目前研究热点。本文从绿量的概念与发展、绿量与城市热环境的调查方法、绿量与城市热环境的关联性以及其在城市规划方面的启示4方面进行论述,总结国内外研究进展,提出了未来该领域的4个发展方向,包括三维绿量调查方法的改善、城市热环境的监测与预测、城市绿量三维空间格局指标体系的构建以及关联绿量与城市热环境研究的三维空间格局分析方法的创建。本文为研究绿量调控城市热环境提供了一种三维空间分析的视角,以期更深入地探索城市绿量的三维空间格局、平衡城市热环境的适宜性和多方面生态效益,为城市绿色空间规划与设计提供科学依据,也为人类适应气候变化并科学调控城市热环境提供理论支持。     

城市森林生态学的基本理论与研究方法

随着世界经济的发展和城市人口的增加,城市环境问题严重阻碍了城市可持续发展,形成了城市森林生态学这一新学科,森林生态学,景观生态学,园林学和人类生态学4种学科的相关理论相互融合构成了城市森林生态学的理论基础,城市森林生态学的形成使人们从生态系统的角度审视城市的发展,并把生物环境即人类及所有植物和动物的群体视为这个系统的一个要素,引出了“城市森林”的概念,本文较系统地介绍了城市森林生态学的基本概念,主要研究内容。理论基础及基本原理,研究方法及其发展展望。     

基于生态系统服务的城市生态基础设施:现状、问题与展望

城市生态基础设施是城市可持续发展的重要基础,也是建设生态城市的重要保证。生态系统服务是城市生态基础设施建设的核心与关键。在快速城市化的背景下,保障生态基础设施的结构完整性和功能完善性尤为重要。在阐述生态系统服务的基础上,对生态基础设施的概念与类型进行了概述;从城市湿地生态基础设施、绿地生态基础设施以及城市地表硬化的生态工程改造3个方面对城市生态基础设施研究现状进行综述;对生态基础设施结构与功能评估方法进行了总结,对基于生态系统服务的城市生态基础设施研究进行了综合评述,首次提出了城市表面生态学的概念与研究展望,为城市生态系统服务的强化与调控提供了方法论指导。城市生态基础设施与表面生态学的整合研究将对城市水文效应(内涝)、灰霾效应(PM2.5)、热岛效应、水体污染与富营养化等备受关注的重大问题提供新的解决思路与科学方法。     

中国城市鸟类学研究进展

我国的城市鸟类学起步于20世纪80年代,随着城市化过程的加速,城市鸟类学也有了较快发展。为了全面系统地了解中国城市鸟类学研究的历史、现状与发展趋势,在中国期刊全文数据库中以"城市"和"鸟类"为主题词检索了1950—2015年间发表的文章,筛选获得128篇文章,并对检索结果进行综述。结果显示,城市鸟类学发表文章数量自20世纪80年代起逐渐增加,由1981—1990的年均0.7篇跃升至2011—2015年的年均11.6篇。研究地涉及全国29个省级行政区的57个城市。研究的主要议题包括:城市鸟类的群落结构和分布、影响城市鸟类的主要环境因素和城市鸟类的保护实践。综述发现,不同城市环带位置,城市中不同生境组合会影响城市的鸟类群落结构;不同尺度上的环境因素会对鸟类的分布、繁殖、觅食和生理情况产生多种影响,而城市化是影响这些环境因素的主要驱动力;鸟类栖息地规划以保护城市中自然栖息地,增加其景观连通性促进鸟类保护,鸟类招引技术主要通过补充巢资源和食物资源促进鸟类保护。然而,由于资源限制,有关城市鸟类的长期研究相对较少。并且,已有研究中城市鸟类的生态系统服务也鲜有涉及。为此,对我国城市鸟类学的发展提出了三点展望,城市鸟类学研究应加强城市绿地鸟类招引措施的生态影响研究,进一步发掘城市鸟类的自然体验与环境教育价值,并促进民间爱好者参与长期系统性城市鸟类学调查。     

Landscape effects on birds in urban woodlands: an analysis of 34 Swedish cities

Aim To compare bird abundances in woodlands along gradients from the city centre to the peri‐urban area. To evaluate the importance of the proportion of woodland within the city and in the peri‐urban landscape to forest bird communities breeding in urban woodlands. To test whether fragmentation effects on birds were linked to the type of peri‐urban matrix. Location A total of 34 Swedish cities with > 10,000 inhabitants in south‐central Sweden. The study area covered 105,000 km², in which 84% of the Swedish population of 9.1 million lives. Methods Repeated point count surveys were conducted in 2004 in a total of 474 woodlands. General linear models were used to test for possible differences in abundance along urban to peri‐urban gradients, and to regress bird abundances in local urban woodlands on: (1) total woodland cover in the city, (2) total woodland cover in the peri‐urban landscape, (3) the interaction between woodland cover in the city and in the peri‐urban area, (4) region, and (5) human density. Results More than 12,000 individuals of 100 forest bird species were recorded. Of the 34 most common species detected, 13 bird species had higher abundances in urban than in peri‐urban woodlands, and seven species showed the opposite trend. The bird community of urban woodlands was characterized by species associated with deciduous forests and tree nesters, whereas the bird community of peri‐urban woodlands was characterized by species associated with coniferous woodland and ground nesters. Twelve species were significantly linearly associated with the proportion of urban woodland and/or the proportion of peri‐urban woodland, and a further eight species were associated with the interaction between these two factors. Local breeding bird abundances of four species were significantly positively associated with the proportion of urban woodland only in farmland‐dominated landscapes. Main conclusions Fragmentation effects on some urban birds are linked to the type of peri‐urban matrix. In farmland landscapes, peri‐urban woodlands may have been too scarce to act as a source of bird immigrants to fragmented urban woodlands. To maintain populations of specialized forest birds within cities in landscapes dominated by agriculture, it is of paramount importance to conserve any remaining urban woodlands.     

黔中喀斯特城市遗存自然山体景观格局时空演变——以安顺市为例

城市遗存自然山体是山地城市中珍贵而脆弱的生态资源,对于维持城市生态系统稳定发挥着不可替代的作用,然而近年来高强度的城市建设对其产生严重的干扰和胁迫。以安顺市建成区为研究区域,在空间信息技术支持下,综合运用景观格局指数法和缓冲区分析法,分别从城市景观格局动态、城市遗存自然山体景观动态及城-山交互作用3个方面,对近10年快速城市化背景下,安顺市城市遗存自然山体景观格局时空演变进行定量化研究,旨在揭示其对城市扩张的响应规律。结果表明：1）城市整体景观破碎度递增,斑块丰富度密度递减,景观多样性、均匀度、优势度呈波动性变化;2）城市遗存自然山体斑块数量、类型面积、景观优势度递增,斑块形状趋于规则化,连通性递减,聚集度先减后增;3）城-山交互作用明显,主要表现为城市遗存自然山体因城市建设持续受损缩减及其吸引城市建设;4）城市遗存自然山体500 m缓冲区内平均城市建设用地占比及其平均城市人工园林绿地占比均与山体缓冲区距离呈显著负相关,且不同等级城市遗存自然山体斑块与缓冲区内城市建设用地相关程度表现为小型斑块 > 中型斑块 > 较大型斑块 > 大型斑块,与缓冲区内城市人工绿化相关程度表现为中型斑块最高、较大型斑块最低,城市遗存自然山体对城市建设及其人工绿化明显具有吸引作用。解析快速城市化背景下城市遗存自然山体景观动态变化规律及其与城市建设之间的交互作用关系,为城市遗存自然山体后续科学规划管理提供决策支持与理论依据,也可为今后进一步深入开展以其为研究对象的科研活动提供前期基础。     

A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion

The conversion of Earth's land surface to urban uses is one of the most irreversible human impacts on the global biosphere. It drives the loss of farmland, affects local climate, fragments habitats, and threatens biodiversity. Here we present a meta-analysis of 326 studies that have used remotely sensed images to map urban land conversion. We report a worldwide observed increase in urban land area of 58,000 km(2) from 1970 to 2000. India, China, and Africa have experienced the highest rates of urban land expansion, and the largest change in total urban extent has occurred in North America. Across all regions and for all three decades, urban land expansion rates are higher than or equal to urban population growth rates, suggesting that urban growth is becoming more expansive than compact. Annual growth in GDP per capita drives approximately half of the observed urban land expansion in China but only moderately affects urban expansion in India and Africa, where urban land expansion is driven more by urban population growth. In high income countries, rates of urban land expansion are slower and increasingly related to GDP growth. However, in North America, population growth contributes more to urban expansion than it does in Europe. Much of the observed variation in urban expansion was not captured by either population, GDP, or other variables in the model. This suggests that contemporary urban expansion is related to a variety of factors difficult to observe comprehensively at the global level, including international capital flows, the informal economy, land use policy, and generalized transport costs. Using the results from the global model, we develop forecasts for new urban land cover using SRES Scenarios. Our results show that by 2030, global urban land cover will increase between 430,000 km(2) and 12,568,000 km(2), with an estimate of 1,527,000 km(2) more likely.     

城市绿地研究进展

2016年7月8-10日在中国上海召开了第二届国际城市生态学大会,会议的主题是“快速城市化和全球环境变化背景下城市生态学面临的挑战”。会议设16个专场,主要议题包括：城市化动态、城市可持续性研究、城市生物多样性评估和城市生态学教育等。城市绿地是大会的研究热点之一,会上讨论了城市绿地与城市生物多样性的密切联系、城市绿地的温度调节作用和文化服务,以及城市绿地与紧凑城市的关系等众多城市发展中的重要科学问题。为了推动城市绿地和城市生态学研究的进一步发展,本文对SURE大会上与城市绿地相关的研究内容进行综述和介绍。本次大会对未来城市绿地研究具有重要启示：(1)加强城市绿地的生态系统服务与可持续科学教育的研究;(2)加强小尺度城市绿地的评估、规划和管理研究;(3)加强城市绿地多功能的综合性研究。     

A field test of the audibility of urban versus rural songs in mountain chickadees

Anthropogenic noise can mask avian vocalizations, and several urban‐dwelling species adjust frequency or amplitude of vocalizations in ways that appear to compensate for increased noise levels. Playback studies have investigated whether receivers differentiate between signals produced by rural and urban males, but it is difficult to determine whether differential response to stimulus reflects differences in audibility versus perceived differences in male signals/condition that result from urban settlement. Here, we performed paired‐playback trials to determine whether mountain chickadees (Poecile gambeli) differentiate urban versus rural songs when both stimuli were broadcast within noise. For each playback, stimuli were played in short bouts starting at a low signal‐to‐noise ratio and increasing in relative amplitude with each successive bout. If the primary function of adjusted urban songs is propagation in noise, we hypothesized that focal males would respond sooner to urban versus rural playbacks (detect at lower signal‐to‐noise ratios). If urban songs solely encode information about the male's condition (such as increased aggression), then we predicted only a differential aggressive response to playbacks once detected. If urban songs both increase propagation and embed information on male condition, we predicted a combination of both response types. We found no difference in latency to first response in urban versus rural songs, but some evidence for differential aggression to playback dependent on both stimulus type (urban vs. rural) and local ambient noise levels; focal males in noisy (urban) sites responded aggressively to both stimulus types, whereas focal males in quiet (rural) sites responded more aggressively to urban than to rural stimuli. This context‐dependent discrimination may be the result of increased aggression in urban habitats, improved communication in noisy habitats by urban signallers and receivers, or some combination of the two.     

城市三维空间形态的热环境效应研究进展

城市的三维空间形态,通过影响地表能量平衡过程和空气流动,改变城市内部热环境,并可能加剧城市热岛效应。在三维空间上定量解析格局-过程-效应关系对于城市生态安全和可持续发展具有重要意义,可为城市生态规划与景观设计提供重要科学依据。从城市三维形态的热环境效应研究角度,综述了城市三维形态的定量化研究进展;总结了城市三维形态对热环境以及空气流动、太阳辐射等过程的影响;分析了当前城市三维形态的热环境效应研究领域存在的不足。未来的研究应注重建筑与植被三维特征的综合表征,三维形态指标的选择应综合考虑其对设计规划的指导作用,并加强城市三维形态对热环境影响机理及其尺度效应的研究。     

Tracking evolution of urban biogeochemical cycles: past,present, and future

This overview and synthesis paper focuses on the evolution of urban biogeochemical cycles across time. We synthesize empirical data and review existing literature, including papers in this special issue, and we propose the concept of “urban evolution.” The built environment often changes quickly in response to human activities, thus contributing to an urban evolution that affects structure, function, and ecosystem services of human settlements over time. Depending upon management, these changes can result in rapid losses of ecosystem functions/services or progress towards restoration. We explore urban evolution through empirical examples such as: (1) land development and nitrogen inputs within a metropolitan region over half a century; (2) watershed drainage by different forms of stormwater management over decades; (3) human-accelerated weathering in urbanized watersheds over decades; and (4) global salinization of freshwater across urbanizing landscapes over a century. We also synthesize concepts relevant to studying urban evolution of infrastructure and ecosystems including: (1) urban watersheds have challenged our whole notion of the “watershed approach” due to complex hydrologic boundaries and flow paths over time; (2) the urban hydrologic cycle evolves due to changing infrastructure and human water use over time; (3) the importance of extending research beyond individual sites using an urban watershed approach over space and time; (4) salinization as a universal tracer of watershed urbanization over time; (5) human-accelerated weathering of concrete and construction materials contributing to an “urban karst” over time; (6) human alteration of the carbon cycle in urban watersheds over time; and (7) detecting distinct biogeochemical signatures across cities globally over time. Our synthesis and this special issue suggest that urban biogeochemical cycles have exerted a major influence on the elemental composition of the Earth’s surface from local to global scales. A new global research agenda is needed to track the evolution of urban biogeochemical cycles as land development proceeds and infrastructure/management changes so we can better evaluate potential losses in ecosystem services, set realistic watershed and river restoration goals, and formulate effective environmental policy for Earth’s growing urban population.     

Are urban habitats ecological traps for a native songbird? Season‐long productivity,apparent survival,and site fidelity in urban and rural habitats

The northern mockingbird Mimus polyglottos is a native species that is more abundant in urban than non‐urban habitats (i.e. an urban‐positive species). Abundance alone, however, is not an accurate index of habitat quality because urban habitats could represent ecological traps (attractive sink habitat) for urban‐positive species. We compared mockingbird nesting productivity, apparent survival, and decision rules governing site fidelity in urban and rural habitats. If the higher abundance of mockingbirds in urban habitats is driven by higher quality urban habitat, then we predicted that productivity of urban mockingbirds would exceed the estimated source‐sink threshold and productivity of non‐urban mockingbirds. If, on the other hand, urban habitats act as ecological traps, productivity would be lower in urban habitats and would fall below the estimated source‐sink threshold. Productivity of urban pairs exceeded that of non‐urban pairs and more than offset estimated adult mortality, which makes urban habitat a likely source habitat. Apparent adult survival was higher in urban habitats than in non‐urban habitats, although this could be driven by dispersal more than mortality. Decision rules also appeared to differ between urban and non‐urban populations. Females in urban habitats with successful nests were more likely to return than those with unsuccessful nests, whereas return rates of females in nonurban habitats were unrelated to nesting success and may be more related to nesting habitat availability. We conclude that urban habitats do not act as ecological traps that lure mockingbirds into sink habitat and that increased breeding productivity contributes to their success in urban habitats.     

夏季南京市中心-郊区-城市森林梯度上的近地层大气特征

运用定点观测法和车载传感器的流动观测法,研究了夏季沿南京市市中心-郊区-城市森林梯度的近地层大气温度(T_(N-S))、CO_2浓度(p_(N-S)(CO_2))、湿度和污染气体浓度的变化规律.结果表明,沿市中心-郊区-城市森林梯度,T_(N-S)、p_(N-S)(CO_2)、相对湿度(RH_(N-S))和污染物浓度(p_(N-S)(SO_2)和p_(N-S)(NO_2))均表现为规律性的变化,与观测点距市中心的距离间的关系可用logistic方程进行较好的拟合(R~2在0.71～0.90之间).与城市森林(S9)相比,市中心(S1)的T_(N-S)和p_(N-S)(CO_2)在一天中的任何时段均有不同程度的升高,其中,T_(N-S)升高幅度在5:00～6:00时段最小,而在17:00～18:00时段最大,分别为1.3℃和4.7℃,白天和夜间平均分别升高了3.7℃和2.1℃;而p_(N-S)(CO_2)升高幅度在1:00～2:00时段最小,在13:00～14:00时段最大,分别为7.0μmol/mol和66μmol/mol,白天和夜间平均分别升高了55μmol/mol和20μmol/mol.S1和S9点间,绝对湿度(AH_(N-S))的全天平均值无显著差异;而RH_(N-S)除了5:00～6:00时段两点均接近饱和外,一天中S9点均高于S1点,两点最大差值出现在13:00～14:00时段,S1和S9分别为37.4%和52.9%,全天平均升高了7.0%.与S9点相比,S1点的p_(N-S)(SO_2)和p_(N-S)(NO_2)在上午10:00～11:40间分别升高了0.88倍和2.1倍.表明,当前城市的一些环境因子如T_(N-S)和p_(N-S)(CO_2)相当于全球数十年或更久以后的水平.     

Effect of urban function and landscape structure on the urban heat island phenomenon in Beijing,China

Rapid urbanization has aggravated the urban thermal risk and highlighted the urban heat island (UHI) effect. To improve understanding on the effect of urbanization on the UHI effect, it is essential to determine the relationship between the UHI effect and the complexities of urban function and landscape structure. For this purpose, 5116 urban function zones (UFZs), representing the basic function units of urban planning, were identified in Beijing. Land cover and land surface temperature (LST) values were extracted based on remote sensing data. UFZ, land cover, and LST were used to represent the urban function, landscape, and UHI characteristics, respectively. Then, the effects of urban function and landscape structure on the UHI effect were examined. The results indicated that the urban thermal environment exhibited obvious spatiotemporal heterogeneity due to the variation of urban function and landscape complexity: (1) UFZs showed significantly different LST characteristics for different functions and seasons, and the mean LST gap among different types of UFZ can reach 1.72–3.85 °C. (2) During warm seasons, the UHI region is mainly composed of residential, industrial, and commercial zones, while recreational zones contribute as an important UHI source region during cold seasons. (3) Urban developed land and forest are the most important landscape factors contributing to the UFZ effect in the urban thermal environment. These findings have useful implications for urban landscape zoning to mitigate the UHI effect.

     

城市土壤碳循环与碳固持研究综述

城市化过程带来的土地利用变化和环境污染是全球变化的重要方面,城市为人们了解人类与自然复合生态系统对全球变化的影响及其对全球变化的响应过程提供一个独特的"天然实验室"。陆地生态系统碳循环是全球变化研究的热点领域之一,然而,人们对城市在全球碳循环中的作用和影响知之甚少,城市土壤碳循环研究处于起步阶段。介绍了城市土壤的主要特性和碳循环特征,指出强烈的人为作用是其最突出的特点;综述了城市土壤碳库、碳通量和碳固持研究方面取得的进展;探讨了城市化过程中土地利用变化、土壤中生物及土壤管护措施、城市小气候、大气污染沉降和土壤污染等对土壤碳循环的影响;提出未来城市碳循环研究需要开展长期系统监测、深化城市土壤碳循环机制研究、创新研究范式和研究方法、并将研究成果与城市景观规划与设计相结合,提升城市土壤碳管理能力。     

城市群生态安全格局构建:概念辨析与理论思考

城市群是城市发展到一定阶段通过城市间物流、人流和能流高度融合而形成的区域性复合生态系统，如何保障城市群生态安全与健康发展成为当前关注的热点问题。本研究系统分析了生态安全、城市生态安全与城市群生态安全的内涵。认为狭义上城市群生态安全侧重于城市群内部生态空间优化和生态系统服务功能提升，重点关注城市群地区生态用地空间优化与"三生空间"（生态、生活及生产空间）的合理布局。广义上的城市群生态安全不仅需要考虑城市群内部生态系统结构和功能协调及其生态系统服务的供需平衡，也需要从区域尺度考虑城市群与其他区域之间的协调关系。城市群生态安全格局构建的目的则是保障城市群内部区域一体化协调发展，满足人们日常生活的基本需求，实现城市群与区域之间物流、能流和人流的有序流通。在城市群生态安全格局构建时，除了遵循生态安全一般性原则外，还需要遵循以下原则：①生态系统服务供需平衡尺度效应；②生态安全保障的阈值效应；③生态安全格局的空间联动效应。最后文章提出了城市群生态安全格局构建的基本思路和技术路径。     

北京城市土地利用/覆盖变化及其对雨洪调节服务的影响

深入认识城市土地利用/覆盖变化对雨洪调节服务的影响对于提升城市生态系统服务和雨洪管理具有重要意义。基于多期Landsat遥感影像,利用混合像元分解与人工目视解译集成的方法提取了北京市1991—2014年的土地利用/覆盖数据,模拟评估了不同降雨情景下的地表产流与雨洪调节服务,并分析了城市建成区的土地利用/覆盖变化对雨洪调节服务的影响。结果表明:1991—2014年,北京城市用地面积增长了1096.53 km~2,建成区内不透水面比例上升了9.83%。城市建成区雨洪调节服务总体呈下降趋势,1a、10a、25a和100a一遇降雨情景下平均地表径流调节率分别下降了5.37%、2.40%、1.75%和1.04%,一定程度上加剧了城市的雨洪产流风险。同时,城市新扩张区的土地利用/覆盖变化对雨洪调节服务的影响较老城区更强,贡献度超过84%。建议未来城市新区发展应合理配置不透水地表和绿地空间以提升城市雨洪调节服务。     

Non-native species in urban environments: patterns,processes, impacts and challenges

Although urban ecosystems are hotspots for biological invasions, the field of invasion science has given scant attention to invasion dynamics and the challenges facing managers in towns and cities. This paper provides an introduction to the growing challenges of understanding and managing invasive species in urban systems, and the context for a special issue of Biological Invasions, comprising 17 papers, that arose from a workshop on “Non-native species in urban environments: patterns, processes, impacts and challenges” held in Stellenbosch, South Africa, in November 2016. Contributions explore the following key questions: Are patterns and processes of urban invasions different from invasions in other contexts? Why is it important to manage non-native species in urban ecosystems? What are the special management needs in an urban context? How can we bridge the gaps between science, management, and policy with regards to biological invasions in urban ecosystems? The papers in this special issue show that patterns and processes of urban invasions differ in many ways from invasions in other contexts, and that managing invasive species in cities poses unique and increasingly complex challenges. Progress in urban invasion science requires further work to: (1) address key limitations that hinder our understanding of invasion dynamics in cities; (2) clarify whether fundamental concepts in the field of invasion science are appropriate for urban ecosystems; (3) integrate insights from invasion science with those from the burgeoning literature on the “Anthropocene biosphere”, novel ecosystems, social–ecological systems, human–wildlife conflicts, urban green infrastructure, urban planning and design, and ecosystem services/disservices.     

Fox Squirrel Survival in Urban and Rural Environments

Abstract A number of studies on mammalian species that have adapted to urban areas suggest survival may be higher for urban populations than rural populations. We examined differences in fatalities between an urban and rural population of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger). We radiocollared (n = 50 rural, n = 78 urban) fox squirrels during approximately 2 years. We found monthly survival of rural fox squirrels (Ŝ = 0.936) was lower than urban fox squirrels (Ŝ = 0.976) over the same 12-month period. Nonetheless, when comparing a 24-month period of survival data on urban squirrels with an 18-month period on the rural squirrels (periods overlapped for 12 months), survival rates were more similar between urban (Ŝ = 0.938) and rural squirrels (Ŝ = 0.945). Our data suggest that sex and season may influence survival of urban squirrels and not rural squirrels. We also found that cause of fatalities differed between the urban and rural squirrels, with >60% of fatalities on the rural site caused by predation. In contrast, <5% of the fatalities on the urban site were caused by predation and >60% of urban fox squirrel fatalities were caused by motor vehicle collisions. This study illustrates the need to advance our ability to understand, predict, and mitigate effects of urbanization on wildlife resources.