Removal of residual methylene chloride from homoharringtonine by pre-treatment with ethanol

In this study, methylene chloride, which is a residual solvent in final purified homoharringtonine, was removed effectively through pre-treatment with ethanol. When the final HPLC-purified sample was concentrated using a rotary evaporator, the residual methanol easily met the ICH-specified value (3000 ppm), but methylene chloride did not meet the ICH-specified value (600 ppm). However, when the sample (methylene chloride: 10,000 ppm, methanol: 500 ppm) was concentrated through pre-treatment with 95% ethanol using a rotary evaporator, the residual methylene chloride easily met the ICH-specified value. Also, the residual ethanol (concentration > 10,000 ppm) was removed effectively below the ICH-specified value (5000 ppm) through microwave-assisted drying (microwave power: 400 W).     

Application of cellulase-polyamidoamine dendrimer-modified silica for microwave-assisted chitosan enzymolysis

Polyamidoamine dendrimer (PAMAM) is one of a number of dendritic polymers with a precise molecular structure, high geometric symmetry, and a large number of terminal groups. In this study, PAMAM was grafted onto the surface of silica by microwave irradiation and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis. A novel immobilized cellulase was developed based on enzyme immobilization onto the prepared PAMAM-grafted silica and applied in microwave-assisted chitosan enzymolysis. The results show that the efficiency of cellulase immobilization increased with increasing generations of PAMAM. A high enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency was obtained for a 7 mg ml^?1 chitosan solution at pH 6.2 and 50 °C with 40 W microwave-assisted enzymolysis (20 min) compared with a conventional enzymolysis protocol (3 h). The experimental results indicate that this rapid and efficient enzymolysis method combines the advantages of both PAMAM and microwave-assisted technology, which can be adapted to high-throughput enzyme assay in biochemical and clinical research.     

Isocratic rapid liquid chromatographic method for simultaneous determination of carotenoids,retinol, and tocopherols in human serum

An improved isocratic and rapid HPLC method was developed for the measurement of carotenoids, retinol and tocopherols in human serum. Vitamins were extracted with hexane. Mobile phase consisted of a mixture acetonitrile:methylene chloride:methanol with 20 mM ammonium acetate. This method used a small bead size (3 μm) Spherisorb ODS2 column with titane frits. Diode array and fluorescence detectors were used respectively for the detection of carotenoids and retinol/tocopherols. Chromatographic separation was complete in 13 min for β-cryptoxanthin, cis–trans-lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, cis-β-carotene, retinol, δ-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol and α-tocopherol. Echinenone and tocol were employed as internal standards for diode array and fluorescence detection. Accuracy was validated using standard reference material (SRM) 968C. Intra-assay and inter-assay precision were respectively 0.2–7.3% and 3.6–12.6%. Sensitivity was verified using the ICH recommendations and the limit of detection (LOD) obtained was sufficient for routine clinical application.     

Biodegradation kinetic behaviors of n-butyl alcohol and sec-butyl alcohol in a composite bead biofilter

Biodegradation kinetic behaviors of n-butyl alcohol and sec-butyl alcohol in a composite bead biofilter were investigated. The microbial growth rate of n-butyl alcohol was greater than that of sec-butyl alcohol in the inlet concentration range of 50–300 ppm. The microbial growth rate was inhibited at higher inlet concentration, and the inhibitive effect in the concentration range of 50–150 ppm was more pronounced than that in the concentration range of 150–300 ppm. The degree of inhibitive effect for n-butyl alcohol was more sensitive than that for sec-butyl alcohol in the concentration range of 50–150 ppm. The zero-order kinetic with the diffusion rate limitation could be regarded as the most adequate biochemical reaction model. For the biochemical reaction process, the biochemical reaction rate coefficient of n-butyl alcohol was greater than that of sec-butyl alcohol in the inlet concentration range of 50–300 ppm. The biochemical reaction rate coefficient was decreased with increasing inlet concentration. The inhibitive effect for sec-butyl alcohol was more pronounced than that for n-butyl alcohol. The factor of the chemical structure of compound was more predominant in the microbial growth and biochemical reaction processes. The maximum elimination capacity of n-butyl alcohol and sec-butyl alcohol were 55.7 and 20.9 g C h^?1 m^?3 bed volume, respectively. The primary alcohol was easily biodegraded by the microbial.     

Stability and structural changes of horseradish peroxidase: Microwave versus conventional heating treatment

Effects of conventional heating (CH) and microwave (MW) on the structure and activity of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in buffer solution were studied. CH incubation between 30 and 45 °C increased activity of HRP, reaching 170% of residual activity (RA) after 4–6 h at 45 °C. CH treatment at 50 and 60 °C caused HRP inactivation: RA was 5.7 and 16.7% after 12 h, respectively. Secondary and tertiary HRP structural changes were analyzed by circular dichroism (CD) and intrinsic fluorescence emission, respectively. Under CH, activation of the enzyme was attributed to conformational changes in secondary and tertiary structures. MW treatment had significant effects on the residual activity of HRP. MW treatment at 45 °C/30 W followed by CH treatment 45 °C regenerated the enzyme activity. The greatest loss in activity occurred at 60 °C/60 W/30 min (RA 16.9%); without recovery of the original activity. The inactivation of MW-treated HRP was related to the loss of tertiary structure, indicating changes around the tryptophan environment.     

The study on microwave assisted enzymatic digestion of ginkgo protein

Microwave-assisted enzymatic digestion (MAED) technique was applied for ginkgo protein digestion with both free and immobilized enzyme. Under the optimized conditions of MAED (0.01 g/mL substrate concentration of bromelain, 4500 U/g enzyme/ginkgo protein, 30 min, 300 W microwave power), a higher digestion rate (7.50%) and a significant increase in antioxidant activity (72.7 mg/g) were obtained in contrast with the conventional methods. With the optimized digestion conditions (0.625% glutaraldehyde (v/v), 0.4 mg/mL initial concentration of bromelain and 4 h of immobilization), the activity and effectiveness factor of immobilized bromelain were respectively 86 U and 81.6%. The results of ginkgo digestion by applying MAED indicated that the digestion rate of immobilized bromelain obtained by MAED method (6.41%) was comparable to that of free bromelain in the conventional digestion (8.13%). In both case with immobilized and free bromelain while applying MAED, a homogeneously abundant distribution of peptide fragments (from 7.863 Da to 5856 Da) and a few different peptide profiles were found. This report brings in conclusion that applying MAED with immobilized enzyme has the potential to obtain the highest number of antioxidant activity peptides.     

Dissolution of cellulose with NMMO by microwave heating

Environmentally friendly microwave heating process was applied to the dissolution of cellulose in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) with 105–490 W and 2450 MHz microwave energy until the dissolution completed. Microwave heating caused the decrease in the dissolution time and energy consumption. Cellulose/NMMO/water solutions with different cellulose concentrations were converted to the membrane to measure the crystallinity and degree of polymerization. It was shown that microwave heating with the power of 210 W is an alternative heating system for dissolution of cellulose in NMMO. The membranes obtained with two different heating methods showed the same crystallinity and degree of polymerization. As a result, microwave heating has an advantage in shortening reaction times, compared to conventional heating.     

Acaricidal activity of Aloe vera L. leaf extracts against Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Four different extracts of Aloe vera L. leaves were evaluated for acaricidal activity against female adults of carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval), by slide-dip bioassay. At 72 h after treatment, the acetone extract showed the strongest acaricidal activity with LC₅₀ value of 90 ppm. The LC₅₀ values for ethyl acetate, water, and ethanol extracts were 113, 340, and 391 ppm, respectively. The acetone extract was fractionated using a silica gel column. Among the twenty-two fractions obtained the fifth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, fifteenth, and seventeenth fractions showed strong acaricidal activity, causing 80.39 to 92.16% mortality at 72 h after treatment. The tenth and eleventh fractions had the strong activity, with LC₅₀ values of 44 ppm and 33 ppm, respectively. The results suggested that A. vera has a great potential for development as a botanical acaricide for T. cinnabarinus control.     

Effects of antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles on in vitro establishment of G × N15 (hybrid of almond × peach) rootstock

In the present investigation were evaluated the antifungal and antibacterial activities of Nano-silver (NS). Two separate experiments were done to evaluate the potential of silver nanoparticles in controlling the contamination of G × N15 micro-propagation. In the first experiment, a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design with 15 treatments including five different NS concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm) and three soaking time of explants (3, 5 and 7 min) with five replications was conducted. In the other experiment, NS was added to Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with concentrations of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm in a completely randomized design. Results showed that the application of 100 and 150 ppm NS both as an immersion and as added directly to the culture medium significantly reduces internal and external contaminations compared with the control group. Using NS in culture medium was more efficient to reduce fungal and bacterial contamination than immersion. High concentrations of NS had an adverse effect on the viability of G × N15 single nodes and this effect was more serious in immersed explants in NS than directly added NS ones regarding the viability of buds and plantlet regeneration. In conclusion, due to high contamination of woody plants especially fruit trees and also adverse environmental effects of mercury chloride, the NS solution can be used as a low risk bactericide in micro-propagation of G × N15 and can be an appropriate alternative to mercury chloride in the future.     

Evaluation of several holding solutions for prolonging vase-life and keeping quality of cut sweet pea flowers (Lathyrus odoratus L.)

Cut spikes of sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.) were kept in 2% sucrose, 200 ppm 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate (8-HQS), pulsing treatment with 200 ppm 8-HQS in combination with 2% sucrose for 12 h, pulsing the spikes with 0.2 mM silver thiosulfate (STS) for 1 h and pulsing with 0.2 mM STS for 1 h followed by 2% sucrose solution. Therefore, this study aimed to see their effects on keeping quality and vase-life of the cut flowers. A control (deionized water) and a standard preservative were also included in the experiment. The results showed that all treatments had improved the keeping quality and vase-life of the cut flowers comparing to control ones. Among all these treatments, the 8-HQS combined with 2% sucrose showed the best water uptake, water balance, percentage of maximum increase in fresh weight of the cut flower stems and vase-life which was extended up to 17 days. Moreover, this keeping solution retarded the chlorophyll as well as carbohydrate degradation. However, anthocyanin concentrations were increased by treatments with sucrose alone or STS followed by sucrose during the postharvest life. It has been concluded that 200 ppm 8-HQS combined with 2% sucrose solution has the potential to be used as a commercial cut flower preservative solution to delay flower senescence, enhance post harvest quality and prolong the vase-life of sweet pea cut flowers.     

Alkaline phosphatase conductometric biosensor for heavy-metal ions determination

Alkaline phosphatase conductometric biosensors consisting of interdigitated gold electrodes and enzyme membranes have been used for assessment of heavy-metal ions in water. These analytes act as enzyme inhibitors. Enzyme residual activity has been measured in Tris-nitrate buffer without metal preincubation in the presence of Mg²⁺ ions as activator. The results indicate that the toxicity of the various metals tested toward immobilized phosphatase is ranged as follows: Cd²⁺ > Co²⁺ > Zn²⁺ > Ni²⁺ > Pb²⁺. Detection limits were about 0.5 ppm for Cd²⁺, 2 ppm for both Zn²⁺ and Co²⁺, 5 ppm for Ni²⁺ and 40 ppm for lead ions. In addition, the responses during 10 h were stable (RSD 4%) and a drift of about 7% per day was observed. The storage stability in buffer solution at 4 °C remained stable for more than one month.     

Isolation and partial characterization of collagen from outer skin of Sepia pharaonis (Ehrenberg, 1831) from Puducherry coast

Type I collagen from outer skin of Sepia pharaonis was extracted and partially characterized. Yield of Acid Soluble Collagen (ASC) and Pepsin Soluble Collagen (PSC) were calculated as 1.66% and 3.93% and the total protein content of ASC and PSC were found as 18.4% and 48.6%. FT-IR spectrum of ASC and PSC recorded 12 and 14 peaks, respectively. ¹H NMR spectrum of ASC showed singlets at 1.23 ppm, 3.1 ppm, 3.55 ppm and 3.7 ppm and PSC at 1.23 ppm and 2.08 ppm. The molecular weight for ASC was calculated as 102 kDa and for PSC as 110, 108 and 102 kDa through SDS-PAGE. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) results supported that PSC withstand high thermal stability (82.85 °C) than ASC (73.13 °C). Higher denaturation temperature with high molecular weight well support the property of type I collagen from skin of S. pharaonis and it could be used as another potent source for the extraction of collagen.     

Effect of microwave irradiation on the structure of glucoamylase

In the present study, we describe changes in the primary and secondary structural patterns of glucoamylase during starch hydrolysis under microwave irradiation using SDS-PAGE and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Our SDS-PAGE results show that the primary structure of glucoamylase did not change after microwave irradiation. According to the CD spectra, the positive peak height (λ = 193 nm) of the microwave-irradiated samples decreased by 36.4–68.2% compared to those without irradiation, whereas the double negative peak height (λ = 206 nm, λ = 220 nm) increased by 10.8–31.4%. In addition, the positive peak (λ = 193 nm) shifted by 0.2–3 nm. After treatment of glucoamylase with microwave irradiation, the α-helical content of glucoamylase decreased sharply, whereas the β-sheet, β-turn and random coil content increased gradually. The conformational changes of glucoamylase after microwave irradiation provide theoretical support for the mechanism whereby microwave irradiation accelerates starch hydrolysis catalyzed by glucoamylase.     

Optimization of a rapid microwave-assisted extraction method for the simultaneous determination of opiates,cocaine and their metabolites in human hair

A rapid and cleanup-free microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method is proposed for the simultaneous extraction of six illegal drugs of abuse – cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZE), cocaethylene (CCE), morphine, 6-monoacethylmorphine (6AM) and codeine – from human hair samples. The analytes were determined using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photodiode array UV detection. The influence of several variables on the efficiency of the MAE procedure was investigated in detail by a multi-objective optimization approach based on a hybrid experimental design (17 experiments) and desirability functions. Six drugs were successfully extracted from human hair with recoveries close to 100% and good reproducibility (<3.6% RSD) under the optimal MAE conditions: 11 mL dichloromethane (DCM) extraction solvent, 60 °C extraction temperature, 9 min extraction time and 0.5 mL of methanol (MeOH) added to 50 mg of the hair sample in the extraction vessels. Limits of quantification of 0.2 ng mg^?1 were found for the studied compounds. A comparison of sample preparation procedures, including MAE, enzymatic digestion and digestion by aqueous acids, was also conducted. The results indicated that the global behaviour of sample procedures provided similar satisfactory recoveries ranging from 86 to 100%. Indeed, the MAE procedure resulted in a reduction of extraction time by 100-fold and the elimination of cleanup steps. Slightly higher recoveries of morphine, 6AM, BZE and CCE, at 1 ng mg^?1 concentration level and cocaine at 40 ng mg^?1 concentration level, were achieved using MAE. Lastly, the proposed MAE method was applied to several human hair samples from multidrug abusers.     

Effects of intermittent watering on water balance and feed intake in male Ethiopian Somali goats

The objective of this study was to investigate the regulation of water balance and dry matter (DM) intake of male Ethiopian Somali goats. Twenty-eight goats were grouped into four treatments; goats watered every day (W1), every 2nd day (W2), every 3rd day (W3) and every 4th day (W4) for a total period of 72 days. Plasma sodium and potassium were analyzed by flame photometry, plasma osmolality by freezing point depression, plasma protein concentration by TS refractometry, and the plasma vasopressin concentration by radioimmunoassay. Goats were fed grass hay ad libitum and were given 200 g of concentrates daily. The calculated daily water intake (ml/kg BW^0.75) of W1, W2, W3 and W4 was 128 ± 4, 86 ± 4, 88 ± 4 and 78 ± 4, respectively, (P < 0.001, W1 versus the other groups). Calculated total concentrates intake did not change, whereas Group W2 and W4 consumed less hay on days of water deprivation (W1 versus W2, P < 0.01; W1 versus W4, P < 0.001). Plasma sodium concentration of W1 was 143 ± 1 mmol/l. Intermittent watering increased plasma sodium concentration from 140 or 141 ± 1 mmol/l to 145 or 146 ± 1 mmol/l every 2nd day in group W2. In W3, it increased from 139 ± 1 to 146 ± 1 mmol/l and in W4 from 137 ± 1 to 149 ± 1 mmol/l (P < 0.001 for all) on days after watering compared to last day of water deprivation, respectively. Corresponding changes were observed in plasma osmolality. Total plasma protein concentration increased only in W3 from 65 ± 1 to 67 ± 1 mmol/l on day 3 (P < 0.01) and in W4 from 65 ± 1 to 67 and 68 ± 1 mmol/l on days 3 and 4, respectively (P < 0.05). The plasma vasopressin concentration of W1 was close to 0.80 ± 0.28 pmol/l on all days, but it increased on dehydration days in W2 (P < 0.05). In W3, the vasopressin concentration increased from 0.95 or 1.19 pmol/l the day after watering to 3.11 ± 0.28 pmol/l on day 3 (P < 0.01). In W4, it was 0.82 ± 0.31 pmol/l the day after watering and reached 6.06 ± 0.31 pmol/l on day 4 (P < 0.001). We conclude that male Ethiopian Somali goats can be watered once every 3rd days, and that longer interval is not recommended because it demands marked mobilization of water saving mechanisms and causes decreased DM intake.     

Efficacy of Iranian diatomaceous earth deposits against Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Laboratory bioassays were carried out to evaluate the insecticidal efficacy of two Iranian deposits of diatomaceous earths (DEs) and a commercial formulation, SilicoSec®, against adult confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val). The Iranian DEs were dried and sieved to get particle sizes of 0–149, 74–149, 0–74 μm, and 0–37 μm. First, DE samples were applied at the four concentration levels of 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm and each concentration was replicated four times. Tests were carried out at 27 ± 1 °C and 55 ± 5% r.h. in continuous darkness. The beetle mortality was counted at 2, 7, and 14 days after exposure. Moreover, another experiment was conducted to estimate the LC₅₀ values of the DEs. For the first experiment, adult beetle mortality exceeded 51% when exposed for 2 d to 2000 ppm of SilicoSec®. Complete mortality was recorded at each concentration of SilicoSec® at an exposure longer than 7 days except for 500 ppm; while mortalities of T. confusum at 2000 ppm of Maragheh and Mamaghan samples with the 0–149 μm particle size were 40.62% and 85.41%, respectively. Mortality of T. confusum was influenced by concentration and time of exposure to the DEs. SilicoSec® was the most effective DE followed by Mamaghan samples. The Maragheh samples were the least effective. In addition, in most cases fractions with smaller particles were more effective than larger ones. More experiments are necessary to process natural DEs and make them commercially exploitable.     

Impact of 1.8-GHz radiofrequency radiation (RFR) on DNA damage and repair induced by doxorubicin in human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells

In the present in vitro study, a comet assay was used to determine whether 1.8-GHz radiofrequency radiation (RFR, SAR of 2 W/kg) can influence DNA repair in human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells exposed to doxorubicin (DOX) at the doses of 0 μg/ml, 0.05 μg/ml, 0.075 μg/ml, 0.10 μg/ml, 0.15 μg/ml and 0.20 μg/ml. The combinative exposures to RFR with DOX were divided into five categories. DNA damage was detected at 0 h, 6 h, 12 h, 18 h and 24 h after exposure to DOX via the comet assay, and the percent of DNA in the tail (% tail DNA) served as the indicator of DNA damage. The results demonstrated that (1) RFR could not directly induce DNA damage of human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells; (2) DOX could significantly induce DNA damage of human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells with the dose–effect relationship, and there were special repair characteristics of DNA damage induced by DOX; (3) E–E–E type (exposure to RFR for 2 h, then simultaneous exposure to RFR and DOX, and exposure to RFR for 6 h, 12 h, 18 h and 24 h after exposure to DOX) combinative exposure could obviously influence DNA repair at 6 h and 12 h after exposure to DOX for four DOX doses (0.075 μg/ml, 0.10 μg/ml, 0.15 μg/ml and 0.20 μg/ml) in human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells.     

Effects of abamectin and deltamethrin to the foragers honeybee workers of Apis mellifera jemenatica (Hymenoptera: Apidae) under laboratory conditions

This study aimed at evaluating the toxicity of some insecticides (abamectin and deltamethrin) on the lethal time (LT₅₀) and midgut of foragers honeybee workers of Apis mellifera jemenatica were studied under laboratory conditions. The bees were provided with water, food, natural protein and sugar solution with insecticide (concentration: 2.50 ppm deltamethrin and 0.1 ppm abamectin). The control group was not treated with any kind of insecticides. The mortality was assessed at 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hour (h) after insecticides treatment and period to calculate the value of lethal time (LT₅₀). But the samples the histology study of midgut collected after 24 h were conducted by Scanning Electron Microscope. The results showed the effects of insecticides on the current results show that abamectin has an adverse effect on honeybees, there is a clear impact on the lethal time (LT₅₀) was the abamectin faster in the death of honeybee workers compared to deltamethrin. Where have reached to abamectin (LT₅₀ = 21.026) h, deltamethrin (LT₅₀ = 72.011) h. However, abamectin also effects on cytotoxic midgut cells that may cause digestive disorders in the midgut, epithelial tissue is formed during morphological alterations when digestive cells die. The extends into the internal cavity, and at the top, there is epithelial cell striated border that has many holes and curves, abamectin seems to have crushed the layers of muscle. Through the current results can say abamectin most toxicity on honeybees colony health and vitality, especially foragers honeybee workers.     

Process intensification of immobilized lipase catalysis by microwave irradiation in the synthesis of 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) esters

4-Chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) is a selective systemic herbicide which is absorbed by leaves and roots. MCPA esters are preferred due to their low water solubility and environmental friendliness. Esterification of MCPA with n-butanol was investigated as a model reaction using immobilized enzymes under the influence of microwave irradiation. Different immobilized enzymes such as Novozym 435, Lipozyme TL IM, Lipozyme RM IM and Lipase AYS Amano were studied under microwave irradiation amongst which Novozym 435 (immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B) was the best catalyst. Effects of various parameters were systematically studied on rates and conversion. Under microwave irradiation, the initial rates were observed to increase up to 2-fold. Under optimized conditions of 0.1 mmol MCPA and 0.3 mmol n-butanol in 15 mL 1,4-dioxane as solvent, Novozym 435 showed a conversion of 83% at 60 °C in 6 h. Based on initial rate and progress curve data, the reaction was shown to follow the Ping Pong bi–bi mechanism with inhibition by MCPA and n-butanol. Esterification of MCPA was also studied with different alcohols such as isopropyl alcohol, n-pentanol, n-hexanol, benzyl alcohol and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol.     

Treatment of wet process hardboard plant VOC emissions by a pilot scale biological system

A pilot scale biological treatment system for air emissions was installed and tested at a forest products plant in western Oregon, USA, which collected and treated gaseous emissions from the hardboard steam press vents on the top of the plant building. This system was installed mainly to demonstrate the effectiveness of biological treatment technologies in removing volatile organic compounds (VOC) and hazardous air pollutants (HAP) from the wet-process hardboard press emissions, and to test the efficiency of the system on fine particles and condensable organics with the presence of a pre-treatment wet dust collector. The bio-oxidation system was comprised of a particle pre-treatment unit Type W Rotoclone (wet hydrocyclone), a biotrickling filter and a biofilter with airflow capacity of up to 4.72 m³/s. This unit operated at approximately 0.71 m³/s, which is the optimal flow required for the Rotoclone's throughput, and provided an EBCT (empty bed contact time) of 45 s. Analysis of total VOC measurements from the system indicated removals down to less than 5 ppm in the effluent emissions. Evaluations of opacity reductions also met project objectives with routine outlet measurements of 0–5%, which are in compliance with state regulatory guidelines. Emissions air samples were collected at different locations in the biological system for GC–MS analysis and characterization to identify specific VOCs and their removals.