Role of Plant Residues in Determining Temporal Patterns of the Activity,Size, and Structure of Nitrate Reducer Communities in Soil

The incorporation of plant residues into soil not only represents an opportunity to limit soil organic matter depletion resulting from cultivation but also provides a valuable source of nutrients such as nitrogen. However, the consequences of plant residue addition on soil microbial communities involved in biochemical cycles other than the carbon cycle are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the responses of one N-cycling microbial community, the nitrate reducers, to wheat, rape, and alfalfa residues for 11 months after incorporation into soil in a field experiment. A 20- to 27-fold increase in potential nitrate reduction activity was observed for residue-amended plots compared to the nonamended plots during the first week. This stimulating effect of residues on the activity of the nitrate-reducing community rapidly decreased but remained significant over 11 months. During this period, our results suggest that the potential nitrate reduction activity was regulated by both carbon availability and temperature. The presence of residues also had a significant effect on the abundance of nitrate reducers estimated by quantitative PCR of the narG and napA genes, encoding the membrane-bound and periplasmic nitrate reductases, respectively. In contrast, the incorporation of the plant residues into soil had little impact on the structure of the narG and napA nitrate-reducing community determined by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) fingerprinting. Overall, our results revealed that the addition of plant residues can lead to important long-term changes in the activity and size of a microbial community involved in N cycling but with limited effects of the type of plant residue itself.Modern agricultural practices include a return of plant residues to soil, as this is considered sustainable to the environment. It is now recognized that the conversion of native land into cultivated systems leads to carbon losses, which can be up to 20 to 40% (17). Postharvest plant residues therefore represent an important source of carbon, helping to replenish soil organic matter that decomposes as a result of cultivation. Decomposing plant residues are also a source of nutrients, such as nitrogen, with reduced nitrate leaching compared to mineral fertilizers, which is beneficial for water quality (3). In addition, leaving the plant residue on the soil surface limits water losses by evaporation and prevents soil erosion by wind or water (15).The biochemical composition of plant residues is one of the most important factors influencing their decomposition in soil (14, 28, 29, 51). Indeed, Manzoni et al. (28), using a data set of 2,800 observations, showed previously that the patterns of decomposition were regulated by the initial residue stoichiometry. Several other factors such as climatic conditions, soil type, or localization of the residue in the soil (incorporated or on the soil surface) were also reported previously to influence decomposition (2, 24, 29, 44). Microorganisms are the major decomposers of organic matter in soil, and therefore, the diversity and activity of the microbial community during plant residue decomposition has received much attention (6, 23, 26, 27, 35). It was shown previously that the biochemical composition of plant residues influences microbial respiration (8) and microbial community structure (7, 37). The recent development of carbon-labeling approaches has furthered our knowledge of the microorganisms that actively assimilate the carbon derived from various plant residues (10, 31). However, most of those studies focused on microorganisms involved in C mineralization, and in contrast, very little is known about the effect of plant residue decomposition on the microbial communities involved in biochemical cycles other than the carbon cycle. Thus, despite the influence of plant residues on nitrogen cycling (1, 4, 5, 16, 20), studies assessing the effect of the presence and composition of plant residues on the ecology of microbial communities involved in nitrogen cycling are rare (21, 32, 36).The dissimilatory reduction of nitrate into nitrite is the first step in the processes of denitrification and the dissimilatory reduction of nitrate to ammonium (33, 41). The reduction of nitrate by denitrification leads to losses of nitrogen, which is often a limiting nutrient for plant growth in agriculture. Two types of dissimilatory nitrate reductases, differing in location, have been characterized: a membrane-bound nitrate reductase (Nar) and a periplasmic nitrate reductase (Nap) (9, 53). Nitrate reducers can harbor either Nar, Nap, or both (40, 47). Nitrate reducers are probably the most taxonomically diverse functional community within the nitrogen cycle, with members in most bacterial phyla and also archaea (42). Because of this high level of diversity of heterotrophs sharing the ability to produce energy from nitrate reduction, nitrate reducers are an excellent model system to investigate the response of the N-cycling community to plant residue addition.The aim of this work was to determine how the incorporation of plant residues with contrasting biochemical compositions into soil affects the nitrate-reducing community. For this purpose, we monitored the dynamics of the potential activity, size, and structure of the nitrate-reducing community after the addition of wheat, rape, or alfalfa residues to soil in a field experiment. As the nature and availability of the substrate change during residue decomposition (38, 39, 48), the influence of the incorporation of different plant residues on the nitrate-reducing community was investigated at several sampling times for 11 months.     

Prokaryotic Community Structure and Sulfate Reducer Activity in Water from High-Temperature Oil Reservoirs with and without Nitrate Treatment

Sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP) cause severe problems like microbial corrosion and reservoir souring in seawater-injected oil production systems. One strategy to control SRP activity is the addition of nitrate to the injection water. Production waters from two adjacent, hot (80°C) oil reservoirs, one with and one without nitrate treatment, were compared for prokaryotic community structure and activity of SRP. Bacterial and archaeal 16S rRNA gene analyses revealed higher prokaryotic abundance but lower diversity for the nitrate-treated field. The 16S rRNA gene clone libraries from both fields were dominated by sequences affiliated with Firmicutes (Bacteria) and Thermococcales (Archaea). Potential heterotrophic nitrate reducers (Deferribacterales) were exclusively found at the nitrate-treated field, possibly stimulated by nitrate addition. Quantitative PCR of dsrAB genes revealed that archaeal SRP (Archaeoglobus) dominated the SRP communities, but with lower relative abundance at the nitrate-treated site. Bacterial SRP were found in only low abundance at both sites and were nearly exclusively affiliated with thermophilic genera (Desulfacinum and Desulfotomaculum). Despite the high abundance of archaeal SRP, no archaeal SRP activity was detected in [³⁵S]sulfate incubations at 80°C. Sulfate reduction was found at 60°C in samples from the untreated field and accompanied by the growth of thermophilic bacterial SRP in batch cultures. Samples from the nitrate-treated field generally lacked SRP activity. These results indicate that (i) Archaeoglobus can be a major player in hot oil reservoirs, and (ii) nitrate may act in souring control—not only by inhibiting SRP, but also by changing the overall community structure, including the stimulation of competitive nitrate reducers.During the process of secondary oil recovery in offshore oil fields, most often sulfate-rich seawater is injected into the reservoir to increase pressure and enhance recovery. The supply of large amounts of sulfate as an electron acceptor and the presence of oil organics and their degradation products as electron donors facilitate the enrichment and growth of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP) in the reservoir, as well as in piping and topside installations (51, 54). The activity of SRP causes severe economic problems due to the reactivity and toxicity of the produced hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). In addition to microbiologically influenced corrosion and reservoir souring, the efficiency of oil production is decreased due to plugging by SRP biomass and precipitated metal sulfides (12, 39). Besides the use of broad-spectrum biocides or inhibitors for sulfate reduction, the addition of nitrate effectively decreased the net production of H₂S in model column studies (15, 20, 38) and field trials (7, 53). The mechanisms by which nitrate addition might affect souring control are (i) the stimulation of heterotrophic nitrate-reducing bacteria (hNRB) that outcompete SRP for electron donors, (ii) the activity of nitrate-reducing, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (NR-SOB), and (iii) the inhibition of SRP by the production of nitrite and nitrous oxides (21, 51).Identification and quantification of reservoir microorganisms, including NRB and SRP, has so far most frequently been assessed by cultivation-dependent methods (7, 12, 53), and cultivation-independent methods have only recently been introduced into the field of reservoir microbiology (11, 17, 28, 32). Considering the small number of these studies, information currently available on the microbial communities and especially on the abundance of nitrate and sulfate reducers present in oil reservoirs or production systems is sparse and, most notably, not quantitative.The goal of this study was to compare the diversity, abundance, and activity of SRP in production water (PW) from a nitrate-treated and an untreated oil reservoir using a combination of 16S rRNA and dsrAB gene-based analyses, newly developed quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays, and ³⁵SO₄²⁻ radiotracer incubations. The two analyzed oil reservoirs (Dan and Halfdan) share similar physicochemical characteristics with regard to injection water composition and reservoir conditions, but nitrate has only been added at Halfdan since the start of production. It is hypothesized that the addition of nitrate to the injection water favored the growth of hNRB and/or NR-SOB, thereby inhibiting the activity of SRP and reducing the concentration of H₂S, and is consequently reflected in a lower abundance of SRP and a more specialized prokaryotic community.     

The Relationships Among Disturbance, Substratum Size and Periphyton Community Structure

Numerous studies have determined the effects of physical disturbance on periphyton, however, the substrata used have varied in size among studies. In this study we examined the influence of substratum size on the change in periphyton exposed to three levels of disturbance. Periphyton communities were established in a large greenhouse tank on square unglazed tiles that were either 2.5, 5, or 7.5 cm on a side. Following community development sets of tiles were randomly assigned to controlled disturbances removing 25%, 50%, or 75% of the community or an undisturbed control. Following disturbance, changes in periphyton density were associated with both disturbance treatment and tile size as was taxa richness. Experimental results and direct observation revealed that algal growth was most concentrated along the edge of the tile and progressively declined toward the center. Thus, substratum size influences colonization and pre-disturbance community structure, which then affects the extent of periphyton community change due to different levels of disturbance.     

Bacterial Activity, Community Structure, and Centimeter-Scale Spatial Heterogeneity in Contaminated Soil

In an anthropogenically disturbed soil (88% sand, 8% silt, 4% clay), 150-mg samples were studied to examine the fine-scale relationship of bacterial activity and community structure to heavy metal contaminants. The soils had been contaminated for over 40 years with aromatic solvents, Pb, and Cr. Samples from distances of <1, 5, 15, and 50 cm over a depth range of 40–90 cm underwent a sequential analysis to determine metabolic potential (from ¹⁴C glucose mineralization), bacterial community structure [using polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE)], and total extractable Pb and Cr levels. Metabolic potential varied by as much as 10,000-fold in samples <1 cm apart; log–log plots of metal concentration and microbial metabolic potential showed no correlation with each other. Overall, metal concentrations ranged from 9 to 29,000 mg kg⁻¹ for Pb and from 3 to 8500 mg kg⁻¹ for Cr with small zones of high contamination present. All regions exhibited variable metal concentrations, with some soil samples having 30-fold differences in metal concentration in sites <1 cm apart. Geostatistical analysis revealed a strong spatial dependence for all three parameters tested (metabolic activity, Pb, and Cr levels) with a range up to 30 cm. Kriging maps showed that in zones of high metal, the corresponding metabolic activity was low suggesting that metals negatively impacted the microbial community. PCR-DGGE analysis revealed that diverse communities were present in the soils with a random distribution of phylotypes throughout the sampling zones. These results suggest the presence of spatially isolated microbial communities within the soil profile.     

Differential Responses in Activity of Antioxidant Enzymes to Different Environmental Stresses in Arabidopsis thaliana

Arabidopsis thaliana . Three-week-old plants were exposed to a high temperature (30 C), an enhanced light intensity (200 μE/m²/sec), water deficiency (water deprivation for 2 days), a chilling temperature (5 C), or ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation (0.25 or 0.094 W/m²) for 1 week (except for water deficiency). The high temperature and enhanced light treatments increased only dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) activity. Water deficiency enhanced the activities of DHAR and guaiacol peroxidase (PER). Chilling temperature increased the activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR), whereas it decreased catalase (CAT) activity. UV-B at an intensity of 0.25 W/m² elevated the activities of APX, monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), GR, PER and superoxide dismutase (SOD). It was suggested that the amounts of phenylpropanoid compounds increased during treatments of plants with enhanced light intensity, chilling temperature, and UV-B. These results suggest that some differences exist among the oxidative stress conditions caused by the different treatments, although all of these treatments seem to be related to active oxygen production. We propose that in A. thaliana, environmental stresses may be classified into those which induce DHAR activity and those which induce APX activity. Received 11 January 1999/ Accepted in revised form 22 April 1999     

Abundance, Activity, and Community Structure of Pelagic Methane-Oxidizing Bacteria in Temperate Lakes

The abundance and activity of methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) in the water column were investigated in three lakes with different contents of nutrients and humic substances. The abundance of MOB was determined by analysis of group-specific phospholipid fatty acids from type I and type II MOB, and in situ activity was measured with a ¹⁴CH₄ transformation method. The fatty acid analyses indicated that type I MOB most similar to species of Methylomonas, Methylomicrobium, and Methylosarcina made a substantial contribution (up to 41%) to the total bacterial biomass, whereas fatty acids from type II MOB generally had very low concentrations. The MOB biomass and oxidation activity were positively correlated and were highest in the hypo- and metalimnion during summer stratification, whereas under ice during winter, maxima occurred close to the sediments. The methanotroph biomass-specific oxidation rate (V) ranged from 0.001 to 2.77 mg CH₄-C mg⁻¹ C day⁻¹ and was positively correlated with methane concentration, suggesting that methane supply largely determined the activity and biomass distribution of MOB. Our results demonstrate that type I MOB often are a large component of pelagic bacterial communities in temperate lakes. They represent a potentially important pathway for reentry of carbon and energy into pelagic food webs that would otherwise be lost as evasion of CH₄.     

Abundance,Activity and Community Structure of Denitrifiers in Drainage Ditches in Relation to Sediment Characteristics,Vegetation and Land-Use

Drainage ditches are ubiquitous yet understudied features of the agricultural landscape. Nitrogen pollution disrupts the nutrient balance of drainage ditch ecosystems, as well as the waterbodies in which they drain. Denitrification can help ameliorate the impact of N-fertilization by converting reactive nitrogen into dinitrogen gas. However, factors affecting denitrification in drainage ditches are still poorly understood. In this study, we tested how within-ditch and regional environmental conditions affect denitrifier activity, abundance, and community structure, to understand controls on denitrification at multiple scales. To this end, we quantified in situ denitrification rates and denitrifier abundance in 13 drainage ditches characterized by different types of sediment, vegetation and land-use. We determined how denitrification rates relate to denitrifier abundance and community structure, using the presence of nirS, nirK and nosZ genes as a proxy. Denitrification rates varied widely between the ditches, ranging from 0.006 to 24 mmol N m^?2 h^?1. Ditches covered by duckweed, which contained high nitrate concentrations and had fine, sandy sediments, were denitrification hotspots. We found highest rates in ditches next to arable land, followed by those in grasslands; lowest rates were observed in peatlands and nature reserves. Denitrification correlated to nitrate concentrations, but not to nirK, nirS and nosZ abundance, whereas denitrifier-gene abundance correlated to organic matter content of the sediment, but not to nitrate concentrations. Our results show a mismatch in denitrification regulators at its different organizational scales. Denitrifier abundance is mostly regulated at within-ditch scales, whereas N-loads, regulated by landscape factors, are most important determinants of instantaneous denitrification rates.     

硝酸盐对硝酸还原酶活性的诱导及硝酸还原酶基因的克隆

硝酸盐在植物体内的积累过多已成为影响蔬菜品质并影响人类健康的重要因素。硝酸还原酶（NR）是硝酸盐代谢中的关键酶,提高其活性有利于硝酸盐的降解。为了解植物不同组织中NR的活性,用活体测定法检测了经50mmol/L的KNO₃诱导不同时间后的油菜、豌豆和番茄幼苗根茎叶中NR活性,同时为了明确外源诱导剂浓度与植物体内NR活性的关系,检测了经不同浓度KNO₃诱导2h后的矮脚黄、抗热605、小白菜和番茄叶片中的NRA。结果表明,不同植物组织NR活性有很大差异,叶中NR活性较高,根其次,茎最低;不同植物的NR活性随诱导时间呈不同的变化趋势,相同植物不同组织的NR活性变化趋势相似;不同植物叶片NRA为最高时KNO₃浓度不同。用30mmol/L的KNO3诱导番茄苗2h后,从番茄根和叶中提取总RNA,用RT-PCR方法获得NR cDNA,全长2736bp,编码911个氨基酸。为进一步利用该基因提高植物对硝酸盐的降解能力打下基础。     

Responses of the Phytoplankton Community of a Tropical Reservoir (São Paulo,Brazil) to the Enrichment with Nitrate,Phosphate and EDTA

The effects of artificial enrichment with nitrate, phosphate and EDTA on the phytoplankton community were studied in the Lobo Reservoir (São Paulo, Brazil). After 14 days of in situ incubation, the amounts of suspended matter and chlorophyll a, the numbers of cells and the carotene/chlorophyll ratio were determined. The addition of nitrate and phosphate to water samples produced significant effects on the chlorophyll a and cell counts, while EDTA acted only on the cell production. Both nitrate and phosphate, when analysed individually, caused a decrease in the value of the carotene/chlorophyll ratio. A synergistic effect of the addition of EDTA and N on the suspended matter was observed.     

Community Structure, Cellular rRNA Content, and Activity of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Marine Arctic Sediments

The community structure of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) of a marine Arctic sediment (Smeerenburgfjorden, Svalbard) was characterized by both fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and rRNA slot blot hybridization by using group- and genus-specific 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. The SRB community was dominated by members of the Desulfosarcina-Desulfococcus group. This group accounted for up to 73% of the SRB detected and up to 70% of the SRB rRNA detected. The predominance was shown to be a common feature for different stations along the coast of Svalbard. In a top-to-bottom approach we aimed to further resolve the composition of this large group of SRB by using probes for cultivated genera. While this approach failed, directed cloning of probe-targeted genes encoding 16S rRNA was successful and resulted in sequences which were all affiliated with the Desulfosarcina-Desulfococcus group. A group of clone sequences (group SVAL1) most closely related to Desulfosarcina variabilis (91.2% sequence similarity) was dominant and was shown to be most abundant in situ, accounting for up to 54.8% of the total SRB detected. A comparison of the two methods used for quantification showed that FISH and rRNA slot blot hybridization gave comparable results. Furthermore, a combination of the two methods allowed us to calculate specific cellular rRNA contents with respect to localization in the sediment profile. The rRNA contents of Desulfosarcina-Desulfococcus cells were highest in the first 5 mm of the sediment (0.9 and 1.4 fg, respectively) and decreased steeply with depth, indicating that maximal metabolic activity occurred close to the surface. Based on SRB cell numbers, cellular sulfate reduction rates were calculated. The rates were highest in the surface layer (0.14 fmol cell⁻¹ day⁻¹), decreased by a factor of 3 within the first 2 cm, and were relatively constant in deeper layers.     

Soil Bacterial Community Structure Responses to Precipitation Reduction and Forest Management in Forest Ecosystems across Germany

Soil microbial communities play an important role in forest ecosystem functioning, but how climate change will affect the community composition and consequently bacterial functions is poorly understood. We assessed the effects of reduced precipitation with the aim of simulating realistic future drought conditions for one growing season on the bacterial community and its relation to soil properties and forest management. We manipulated precipitation in beech and conifer forest plots managed at different levels of intensity in three different regions across Germany. The precipitation reduction decreased soil water content across the growing season by between 2 to 8% depending on plot and region. T-RFLP analysis and pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene were used to study the total soil bacterial community and its active members after six months of precipitation reduction. The effect of reduced precipitation on the total bacterial community structure was negligible while significant effects could be observed for the active bacteria. However, the effect was secondary to the stronger influence of specific soil characteristics across the three regions and management selection of overstorey tree species and their respective understorey vegetation. The impact of reduced precipitation differed between the studied plots; however, we could not determine the particular parameters being able to modify the response of the active bacterial community among plots. We conclude that the moderate drought induced by the precipitation manipulation treatment started to affect the active but not the total bacterial community, which points to an adequate resistance of the soil microbial system over one growing season.     

青藏高原高寒草甸植物群落结构和功能对氮、磷、钾添加的短期响应

对中国科学院海北高寒草甸生态系统定位站的矮嵩草草甸水肥样地进行了氮、磷、钾及其组合的施肥处理,研究了施肥对植物群落结构和功能的影响。结果表明:(1)施肥使矮嵩草草甸植物群落物种丰富度减少,不同施肥处理下物种丰富度大小分别为:对照钾磷氮氮磷磷钾氮钾氮磷钾。(2)在氮磷配合施肥处理下,矮嵩草草甸植物群落Shannon-Wiener指数显著高于对照,而其它施肥处理对Shannon-Wiener指数影响不显著。(3)在同一施肥处理下,禾草类和莎草类的重要值明显高于豆科和杂类草功能群,不同施肥处理使禾草、莎草、豆科植物的重要值增加,而杂类草重要值减少。(4)与对照相比,不同施肥(除钾外)处理可不同程度的增加植物群落的高度。(5)除钾、磷钾养分添加对矮嵩草草甸地上生物量的影响与对照差异不显著外,其它养分及其组合添加都极显著增加了群落地上生物量,且大小顺序依次为氮磷氮磷钾磷氮钾氮磷钾钾对照。(6)施用不同种类的肥料后,矮嵩草草甸各功能群地上生物量的比例变化明显,禾草和莎草的比例均增加,杂类草的比例减少,而豆科植物无规律性。(7)熵值法综合评价短期施肥处理对矮嵩草草甸群落的影响表明,氮磷、氮磷钾配合施肥是青藏高原高寒草甸最佳施肥选择。     

Plant Community Responses to Simultaneous Changes in Temperature,Nitrogen Availability,and Invasion

Background

Increasing rates of change in climate have been observed across the planet and have contributed to the ongoing range shifts observed for many species. Although ecologists are now using a variety of approaches to study how much and through what mechanisms increasing temperature and nutrient pollution may influence the invasions inherent in range shifts, accurate predictions are still lacking.

Methods and Results

In this study, we conducted a factorial experiment, simultaneously manipulating warming, nitrogen addition and introduction of Pityopsis aspera, to determine how range-shifting species affect a plant community. We quantified the resident community using ordination scores, then used structural equation modeling to examine hypotheses related to how plants respond to a network of experimental treatments and environmental variables. Variation in soil pH explained plant community response to nitrogen addition in the absence of invasion. However, in the presence of invasion, the direct effect of nitrogen on the community was negligible and soil moisture was important for explaining nitrogen effects. We did not find effects of warming on the native plant community in the absence of invasion. In the presence of invasion, however, warming had negative effects on functional richness directly and invasion and herbivory explained the overall positive effect of warming on the plant community.

Conclusions and Significance

This work highlights the variation in the biotic and abiotic factors responsible for explaining independent and collective climate change effects over a short time scale. Future work should consider the complex and non-additive relationships among factors of climate change and invasion in order to capture more ecologically relevant features of our changing environment.     

Microbial Community Dynamics and Activity Link to Indigo Production from Indole in Bioaugmented Activated Sludge Systems

Biosynthesis of the popular dyestuff indigo from indole has been comprehensively studied using pure cultures, but less has been done to characterize the indigo production by microbial communities. In our previous studies, a wild strain Comamonas sp. MQ was isolated from activated sludge and the recombinant Escherichia coli _nagAc carrying the naphthalene dioxygenase gene (nag) from strain MQ was constructed, both of which were capable of producing indigo from indole. Herein, three activated sludge systems, G1 (non-augmented control), G2 (augmented with Comamonas sp. MQ), and G3 (augmented with recombinant E. coli _nagAc), were constructed to investigate indigo production. After 132-day operation, G3 produced the highest yields of indigo (99.5 ± 3.0 mg/l), followed by G2 (27.3 ± 1.3 mg/l) and G1 (19.2 ± 1.2 mg/l). The microbial community dynamics and activities associated with indigo production were analyzed by Illumina Miseq sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons. The inoculated strain MQ survived for at least 30 days, whereas E. coli _nagAc was undetectable shortly after inoculation. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis suggested the abundance of naphthalene dioxygenase gene (nagAc) from both inoculated strains was strongly correlated with indigo yields in early stages (0–30 days) (P < 0.001) but not in later stages (30–132 days) (P > 0.10) of operation. Based on detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and dissimilarity test results, the communities underwent a noticeable shift during the operation. Among the four major genera (> 1% on average), the commonly reported indigo-producing populations Comamonas and Pseudomonas showed no positive relationship with indigo yields (P > 0.05) based on Pearson correlation test, while Alcaligenes and Aquamicrobium, rarely reported for indigo production, were positively correlated with indigo yields (P < 0.05). This study should provide new insights into our understanding of indigo bio-production by microbial communities.     

Seed Size, Fruit Size, and Dispersal Systems in Angiosperms from the Early Cretaceous to the Late Tertiary

Fossil data from 25 angiosperm floras from the Early Cretaceous ( approximately 124 million years ago) to the Pliocene ( approximately 2 million years ago) were compiled to estimate sizes of seeds and fruits and the relative proportion of two different seed-dispersal systems by animals and by wind. The results suggest that, first, seed and fruit sizes were generally small during most of the Cretaceous, in agreement with previous suggestions, but the trend of increasing sizes started before the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary; second, there was a decrease in both seed and fruit sizes during late Eocene and Oligocene, reaching a level that has continued to the Late Tertiary; third, the fraction of animal dispersal was, in contrast to previous suggestions, rather high also during the Cretaceous but increased drastically in the Early Tertiary and declined congruently with the declining seed and fruit sizes from the late Eocene; and fourth, the fraction of wind dispersal showed a bimodal pattern, being high in the Late Cretaceous and in the Oligocene-Miocene but with a drop in between. We find that the observed trends are only weakly related to the availability of animal fruit dispersers. Instead, the trends are congruent with a climate-driven change in environmental conditions for recruitment, where larger seeds are favored by closed forest vegetation. The prevalence of semiopen, dry, and probably herbivore-disturbed vegetation during the Cretaceous, the development of closed multistratal forests in the Eocene, and the later development of a more open vegetation and grasslands starting in the Oligocene-Miocene, are reflected in the distribution of angiosperm seed and fruit sizes and in the dispersal systems.     

Differential Responses of Iron,Magnesium, and Zinc Deficiency on Pigment Composition,Nutrient Content,and Photosynthetic Activity in Tropical Fruit Crops

Photosynthetica - Fe, Mn, and Zn affected the chlorophyll (Chl) content whereas Fe deficiency caused larger reduction of total chlorophyll content than Mg and Zn deficiencies. Mg deficient mango...     

Adult Responses to Larval Population Size in the Almond Moth, Cadra cautella

Juvenile population size may affect the potential for future mating opportunities and therefore potentially sperm competition; this may favour ontogenetic adjustments in sperm production. Theory predicts that males should optimize their ejaculatory investment in accordance with the risk of sperm competition. Evidence for these theories is typically revealed in males of highly polyandrous species. Whether such responses to environmental cues exist for females, or are maintained in mildly polyandrous species in which most females do not re-mate, is unknown. Male lepidopterans produce normal, fertilizing sperm (eupyrene) and non-fertilizing (apyrene) sperm. Apyrene sperm are associated with reduced female receptivity, suggesting a role in sperm competition. We tested the effect of juvenile population size on life-history parameters and reproductive investment in the mildly polyandrous almond moth, Cadra cautella , a species in which current male ejaculate traits suggest previous selection for paternity protection consistent with a sperm-competitive environment. Larvae were reared at high (H) or low population sizes (L). We recorded larval development time, adult longevity and male gametic investment. Our results show a response by adults to signals in the juvenile environment. H males transferred more apyrene, but not eupyrene sperm. We also examined potential trade-offs between somatic characters and reproductive behaviours. Larval duration was longer for H individuals, females and heavier individuals. Further, H females and L males lived longer than L females. Our data are consistent with the theory that males should adjust their reproductive investment in accordance with sperm competition risk.     

Prokaryotic Metabolic Activity and Community Structure in Antarctic Continental Shelf Sediments

The prokaryote community activity and structural characteristics within marine sediment sampled across a continental shelf area located off eastern Antarctica (66°S, 143°E; depth range, 709 to 964 m) were studied. Correlations were found between microbial biomass and aminopeptidase and chitinase rates, which were used as proxies for microbial activity. Biomass and activity were maximal within the 0- to 3-cm depth range and declined rapidly with sediment depths below 5 cm. Most-probable-number counting using a dilute carbohydrate-containing medium recovered 1.7 to 3.8% of the sediment total bacterial count, with mostly facultatively anaerobic psychrophiles cultured. The median optimal growth temperature for the sediment isolates was 15°C. Many of the isolates identified belonged to genera characteristic of deep-sea habitats, although most appear to be novel species. Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) and isoprenoid glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether analyses indicated that the samples contained lipid components typical of marine sediments, with profiles varying little between samples at the same depth; however, significant differences in PLFA profiles were found between depths of 0 to 1 cm and 13 to 15 cm, reflecting the presence of a different microbial community. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of amplified bacterial 16S rRNA genes revealed that between samples and across sediment core depths of 1 to 4 cm, the community structure appeared homogenous; however, principal-component analysis of DGGE patterns revealed that at greater sediment depths, successional shifts in community structure were evident. Sequencing of DGGE bands and rRNA probe hybridization analysis revealed that the major community members belonged to delta proteobacteria, putative sulfide oxidizers of the gamma proteobacteria, Flavobacteria, Planctomycetales, and Archaea. rRNA hybridization analyses also indicated that these groups were present at similar levels in the top layer across the shelf region.