A new species of Galipea (Rutaceae) from Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Galipea granulosa from Nicaragua and adjacent Costa Rica is described and illustrated and its similarities toG. longiflora are discussed.     

Current estate of biotechnology in Costa Rica

A study was carried out on the construction of indicators in biotechnology in Costa Rica as part of the project "SYMBIOSIS, Cooperative Program for the Construction of Indicators in Biotechnology adapted to Latin American and Caribbean countries, to motivate the application and transference of industrial technologies". The study focused on two units: researchers and research projects developed in Costa Rica, between 1998 and 2002. For researchers, information was collected about indicators related to sex, age, teaching activities, number of projects, academic degree, area of speciality and number of publications. For research projects we obtained information about: speciality, sector of application, duration of projects and number of researchers per project. Very interesting results include the high participation of the women in this area of investigation (54%); the low participation of young researchers (13% younger than 30), and a high proportion of the investigators that are responsible for 4 or more projects (42%). With relation to the specialities of the projects, the majority are in the category Bio-Agro (39%) whereas in Acuaculture only 1% was found. The sectors of application with the most number of projects are: Agriculture and Livestock (37%) and Human Health (35%). The main strengthts and limitatations for the development of biotechnology in Costa Rica are discussed.     

History of leukemia research in Costa Rica

A review of leukemia worldwide is discussed, focusing on etiology, diagnosis and treatment. The history of research of this type of cancer in Costa Rica is presented through the first hospital diagnosis, the arrival of clinical and laboratory hematologists, the establishment of specialized laboratories, the local hematology teaching programs and the voluntary associations that help patients with leukemia. A brief review of Costa Rican publications in this area and the future of this problem in our country is also shown.     

Prenatal diagnosis of chromosomic defects in Costa Rica

This is an historical overview of prenatal cytogenetic diagnosis in Costa Rica. It started in 1984 at the Institute for Health Research of the University of Costa Rica. This is the only fetal cytogenetic diagnosis facility in the country and serves social security as well as private patients. Perinatologists send amniotic fluid and fetal blood samples from high risk pregnancies, mainly due to abnormal ultrasound assessment, sonographic markers of aneuploidy and advanced maternal age. Second and third trimester diagnosis allows the development of coping strategies for the families of affected fetuses, since pregnancy interruption is not permitted. Normal fetal cytogenetic results provide reassurance to the parents.     

Basic limnology of fifty-one lakes in Costa Rica

We visited 51 lakes in Costa Rica as part of a broad-based survey to document their physical and chemical characteristics and how these relate to the mode of formation and geographical distribution of the lakes. The four oxbow lakes were low in elevation and tended to be turbid, high in conductivity and CO2, but low in dissolved O2; one of these, L. Gandoca, had a hypolimnion essentially composed of sea water. These were similar to the four wetland lakes, but the latter instead had low conductivities and pH, and turbidity was often due to tannins rather than suspended sediments. The thirteen artificial lakes formed a very heterogenous group, whose features varied depending on local factors. The thirteen lakes dammed by landslides, lava flows, or lahars occurred in areas with steep slopes, and were more likely to be stratified than most other types of lakes. The eight lakes that occupy volcanic craters tended to be deep, stratified, clear, and cool; two of these, L. Hule and L. Río Cuarto, appeared to be oligomictic (tending toward meromictic). The nine glacial lakes, all located above 3440 m elevation near Cerro Chirripó, were clear, cold, dilute, and are probably polymictic. Cluster analysis resulted in three significant groups of lakes. Cluster 1 included four calcium-rich lakes (average 48 mg l-1), Cluster 2 included fourteen lakes with more Si than Ca+2 and higher Cl- than the other clusters, and Cluster 3 included the remaining thirty-three lakes that were generally less concentrated. Each cluster included lakes of various origins located in different geographical regions; these data indicate that, apart from the high-altitude glacial lakes and lakes in the Miravalles area, similarity in lake chemistry is independent of lake distribution.     

Social Capital and Sustainable Coffee Certifications in Costa Rica

Social capital has many applications in the adoption and management of voluntary certifications such as Fair trade, Rainforest Alliance, Utz, and CAFE Practices. We used a mixed-methods approach to assess social capital in five Costa Rican coffee cooperatives. We applied this information to its effects on the management of sustainable coffee certifications We found that the level of social capital affects the manner in which cooperatives manage certifications in terms of incentivizing certified members, distributing the profits from certification, and cooperating with outside organizations. Generalized trust was found to have an important link with voluntary participation in Rainforest Alliance certification when no financial incentive was provided. However, given the small differences among the cooperatives in micro-scale social capital, we conclude that certifications have not or have not yet made great impacts on the social capital on the micro-scale. This research presents important considerations for employing certifications and other sustainable development projects in different national contexts.     

Genetic admixture and population substructure in Guanacaste Costa Rica

The population of Costa Rica (CR) represents an admixture of major continental populations. An investigation of the CR population structure would provide an important foundation for mapping genetic variants underlying common diseases and traits. We conducted an analysis of 1,301 women from the Guanacaste region of CR using 27,904 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped on a custom Illumina InfiniumII iSelect chip. The program STRUCTURE was used to compare the CR Guanacaste sample with four continental reference samples, including HapMap Europeans (CEU), East Asians (JPT+CHB), West African Yoruba (YRI), as well as Native Americans (NA) from the Illumina iControl database. Our results show that the CR Guanacaste sample comprises a three-way admixture estimated to be 43% European, 38% Native American and 15% West African. An estimated 4% residual Asian ancestry may be within the error range. Results from principal components analysis reveal a correlation between genetic and geographic distance. The magnitude of linkage disequilibrium (LD) measured by the number of tagging SNPs required to cover the same region in the genome in the CR Guanacaste sample appeared to be weaker than that observed in CEU, JPT+CHB and NA reference samples but stronger than that of the HapMap YRI sample. Based on the clustering pattern observed in both STRUCTURE and principal components analysis, two subpopulations were identified that differ by approximately 20% in LD block size averaged over all LD blocks identified by Haploview. We also show in a simulated association study conducted within the two subpopulations, that the failure to account for population stratification (PS) could lead to a noticeable inflation in the false positive rate. However, we further demonstrate that existing PS adjustment approaches can reduce the inflation to an acceptable level for gene discovery.     

The nutrient status of epiphytes and their host trees along an elevational gradient in Costa Rica

Vascular epiphytes are a conspicuous and highly diverse group in tropical wet forests; yet, we understand little about their mineral nutrition across sites. In this study, we examined the mineral nutrition of three dominant vascular epiphyte groups: ferns, orchids, and bromeliads, and their host trees from samples collected along a 2600 m elevational gradient in the tropical wet forests of Costa Rica. We predicted that the mineral nutrition of ferns, orchids, and bromeliads would differ because of their putative differences in nutrient acquisition mechanisms and nutrient sources—atmospherically dependent, foliar feeding bromeliads would have lower nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) concentrations and more depleted δ¹⁵N values than those in canopy soil-rooted ferns because canopy soil is higher in available N, and more enriched in δ¹⁵N than the atmospheric sources of precipitation and throughfall. We also predicted that epiphyte foliar chemistry would mirror that of host trees because of the likely contribution of host trees to the nutrient cycle of epiphytes via foliar leaching and litter contributions to canopy soil. In the same vein, we predicted that epiphyte and host tree foliar chemistry would vary with elevation reflecting ecosystem-level nutrients—soil N availability increases and P availability decreases with increasing elevation. Our results confirmed that canopy soil-rooted epiphytes had higher N concentrations than atmospheric epiphytes; however, our predictions were not confirmed with respect to P which did not vary among groups indicating fixed P availability within sites. In addition, foliar δ¹⁵N values did not match our prediction in that canopy soil-rooted as well as atmospheric epiphytes had variable signatures. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) on foliar measurements determined that ferns, orchids, and bromeliads are statistically distinct in mineral nutrition. We also found that P concentrations of ferns and orchids, but not bromeliads, were significantly correlated with those of host trees indicating a possible link in their mineral nutrition’s via canopy soil. Interestingly, we did not find any patterns of epiphyte foliar chemistry with elevation. These data indicate that the mineral nutrition of the studied epiphyte groups are distinct and highly variable within sites and the diverse uptake mechanisms of these epiphyte groups enhance resource partitioning which may be a mechanism for species richness maintenance in tropical forest canopies.     

Handling and aflatoxin contamination of white maize in Costa Rica

Projects funded by International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada and the European Commission have enabled the examination of more than 3000 samples of maize collected from all regions of Costa Rica at different stages, from the growing crop through storage to final sale, and at different water contents. Contamination with Aspergillus flavus was frequent and about 80% of samples contained more than 20 ng aflatoxins g-1 grain. Average contamination with aflatoxins in the Brunca Region was > 274 ng g -1 while that in other regions was < 70 ng g -1. Except in Brunca region, where it averaged 376 ng g -1, contamination of grain from commercial sources was slightly less than of that from farms (≤15 ng g-1). It appeared that samples kept on the cob after harvest contained almost no aflatoxin while shelled samples were frequently highly contaminated. Experiments were therefore done in Brunca and Huetar Atlantic Regions, utilising 34 experimental maize crops to study in detail the development of A. flavus and aflatoxin from before harvest, through postharvest treatment before drying and through storage for six months. A. flavus was isolated more frequently from maize shelled immediately after harvest than from that kept on the cob until it could be dried, and from more samples from the Brunca Region than from the Huetar Atlantic Region. Samples harvested with ≥18% water content often contained >70% of grains infected with A. flavus but sometimes there were few grains infected. As found in the initial survey, more aflatoxin contamination developed in shelled maize than in that handled on the cob during the period from harvesting to drying, especially if the delay was more than 5 days, and more in Brunca than in Huetar. Shelled grain contained 400–800 ng aflatoxin g -1 in Brunca but <100 ng g-1 in Huetar while grain kept on the cob contained <30 ng g-1, even with >18% water content. Incidence of Fusarium spp. exceeded 50% except where A. flavus colonized more than 80% of grains. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Past, present and future of cytogenetics in Costa Rica

This is an overview of the past, present and future of human Cytogenetics in Costa Rica. It started in 1965 at the University of Costa Rica where it has been developed slowly but steadily. There is only one overloaded clinical cytogenetic laboratory in the social security system. The tests currently performed are peripheral blood and blood marrow karyotypes, prenatal cytogenetic diagnosis (amniotic fluid and fetal blood) and less frequently skin biopsies. The task now is to standardize molecular cytogenetic techniques, we are actually working with PRINS in order to study submicroscopic subtelomeric rearrangements associated with mental retardation and other microdeletion syndromes as well.     

Sixty-Seven Years of Land-Use Change in Southern Costa Rica

Habitat loss and fragmentation of forests are among the biggest threats to biodiversity and associated ecosystem services in tropical landscapes. We use the vicinity of the Las Cruces Biological Station in southern Costa Rica as a regional case study to document seven decades of land-use change in one of the most intensively studied sites in the Neotropics. Though the premontane wet forest was largely intact in 1947, a wave of immigration in 1952 initiated rapid changes over a short period. Overall forest cover was reduced during each time interval analyzed (1947–1960, 1960–1980, 1980–1997, 1997–2014), although the vast majority of forest loss (>90%) occurred during the first two time intervals (1947–1960, 1960–1980) with an annual deforestation rate of 2.14% and 3.86%, respectively. The rate dropped to <2% thereafter and has been offset by forest recovery in fallow areas more recently, but overall forest cover has continued to decline. Approximately 27.9% of the study area is forested currently. Concomitantly, the region shifted from a single contiguous forest to a series of progressively smaller forest fragments with each successive survey. A strong reduction in the amount of core habitat was paralleled by an increased proportion of edge habitat, due to the irregular shape of many forest fragments. Structural connectivity, however, remains high, with an expansive network of >100 km of linear strips of vegetation within a 3 km radius of the station, which may facilitate landscape-level movement for some species. Despite the extent of forest loss, a substantial number of regional landscape-level studies over the past two decades have demonstrated the persistence of many groups of organisms such as birds and mammals. Nonetheless, the continued decline in the quantity and quality of remaining habitat (~30% of remaining forest is secondary), as well as the threat of an extinction debt (or time lag in species loss), may result in the extirpation of additional species if more proactive conservation measures are not taken to reverse current trends–a pattern that reflects many other tropical regions the world over.     

Castilleja (Scrophulariaceae) of Costa Rica and Panama

The mountains of Costa Rica and western Panama constitute a natural floristic region that is inhabited by six species ofCastilleja.Castilleja talamancensis, C. lentii andC. tayloriorum are described as new. The remaining three areC. arvensis,C. irasuensis andC. quirosii. All butC. arvensis are endemic to the area. The six species are keyed, described, illustrated, mapped and documented with literature and specimen citations.     

The grasshoppers of Costa Rica: a survey of the parameters influencing their conservation and survival

Seventy-five per cent of the acridomorph fauna of Costa Rica is confined to the wet forest environment. This habitat also has a disproportionately large proportion of species which are of restricted distribution within the country or are endemic to Costa Rica or are flightless. The grasshoppers of dry forest, grassland and swamp habitats have in general the reverse properties: they include relatively few species and most of these are capable of flight and are widely distributed both within and outside of Costa Rica. The major factor influencing the long-term survival (or, conversely, the extinction) of the major part of the grasshopper fauna of Costa Rica is likely to be the preservation (or destruction) of the wet forest habitat.     

Lafora's progressive myoclonus epilepsy and diagnosed cases in Costa Rica

A review of the main clinical, pathologic and genetic aspects of progressive myoclonus epilepsy Lafora type was undertaken. The diagnosed cases of this disorder in Costa Rica are mentioned.     

Identification of marine and coastal biodiversity conservation priorities in Costa Rica

Costa Rica is recognized as one of the most diverse countries in species and ecosystems, in their terrestrial realm as well as in the marine. Besides this relevance, the country presents a delay on conservation and management of marine and coastal biodiversity, with respect to terrestrial. For 2006, the marine protected surface was 5,208.8 km2, with 331.5 km of coastline, in 20 protected areas. The country has made progress on the conservation priority sites identification for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity, with few efforts on marine planning. This research presents the analysis and results of the gap identification process, for marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the protected areas system of Costa Rica. The analysis was built with the spatial information available on the presence and distribution of coastal and marine biodiversity, the establishment of the conservation goals and a threat analysis over the ecological integrity of this biodiversity. The selection of high-priority sites was carried out using spatial optimization techniques and the superposition over the current shape of marine protected areas, in order to identify representation gaps. A total of 19,076 km2 of conservation gaps were indentified, with 1,323 km2 in the Caribbean and 17,753 km2 in the Pacific. Recommendations are aimed at planning and strengthening the marine protected areas system, using the gaps identified as a framework. It is expected that the results of this study would be the scientific base needed for planning and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in the country.     

Determination of organochlorine insecticides in human milk in Costa Rica

DDT and DDE were detected in the milk of 51 nursing mothers in Costa Rica. In the provinces of Puntarenas, Guanacaste and Limón, where a campaign against malaria took place during the last three decades and where crops are intensively sprayed, the amount of total DDT ranges from 0.12 to 2.60 ppm (mean 1.27 ppm), comparatively, the data of total DDT yielded an average of 0.11 ppm (range 0.01-1.22 ppm) in the provinces of San José, Heredia and Cartago, not so intensively exposed to pesticides. Higher concentrations of the metabolite DDE in 100% of the samples indicated chronic contaminations.