Estimating seasonal density of blue sheep (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudois nayaur</Emphasis>) in the Helan Mountain region using distance sampling methods

The monitoring of animal populations is necessary to conserve and manage the rare or harvest species and to understand the population change over several years. We used distance sampling methods to estimate seasonal density of blue sheep in a 2,740 km² area of Helan Mountain region by walking along 32 transect lines from winter 2003 to autumn 2005. In all, 367–780 blue sheep were observed in 91–143 groups in the surveys during the seasons. Observed mean group size ranged from 3.42 to 8.35 individuals; encounter rate, the number of groups detected per kilometre, varied from 0.19 to 0.30 during the seasons. A hazard rate key function with cosine series expansion and a half-normal key function with either cosine or simple polynomial series expansion were the best fitting models based on the lowest value of Akaike’s information criterion (AIC). Density estimates varied between 3.627 sheep per square kilometre in spring 2004 and 4.635 per square kilometre in summer 2005. There were no detectable differences in estimated density among seasons (P = 0.887). The estimated density of blue sheep was negatively correlated with the total number of deaths (P < 0.05), number of sub-adult males’ deaths (P < 0.05), number of sub-adult females’ deaths (P < 0.05), and number of male lambs’ deaths (P < 0.05). We concluded that distance sampling surveys should be used to monitor long-term population trends to provide the best quantitative estimates of blue sheep populations in the Helan Mountains region.     

Seasonal variations in biomass, abundance and composition of zooplankton in the subarctic waters north of Iceland

The seasonal variations in biomass, abundance and species composition of zooplankton in relation to hydrography and chlorophyll a were studied in the subarctic waters north of Iceland. The sampling was carried out at approximately monthly intervals from February 1993 to February 1994 at eight stations arranged along a transect extending from 66°16′N–18°50′W to 68°00′N–18°50′W. The mean temperature at 50 m depth showed a clear seasonal pattern, with lowest water temperatures in February (∼1.1°C) and the highest in July (∼5.4°C). The spring growth of the phytoplankton began in late March and culminated during mid-April (∼7.0 mg Chl a m⁻³). Both the biomass and the abundance of total zooplankton were low during the winter and peaked once during the summer in late May (∼4 g m⁻² and ∼38,000 individuals m⁻²). A total of 42 species and taxonomic groups were identified in the samples. Eight taxa contributed ∼90% of the total zooplankton number. Of these Calanus finmarchicus was by far the most abundant species (∼60% of the total zooplankton). Less important groups were ophiuroid larvae (∼9%), Pseudocalanus spp. (∼8%), Metridia longa (∼4%), C. hyperboreus (∼3%), Acartia longiremis (∼2%), chaetognaths (∼2%) and euphausiid larvae (∼2%). The dominant copepods showed two main patterns in seasonal abundance: C. finmarchicus, C. hyperboreus and C. glacialis had one annual peak in numbers in late May, while Pseudocalanus spp., M. longa and A. longiremis showed two maxima during the summer (July) and autumn (October/November). Ophiuroid larvae and chaetognaths (mainly Sagitta elegans) peaked during the middle of July, while the number of euphausiid eggs and larvae was greatest from May to July. The succession in population structure of C. finmarchicus indicated its main spawning to be in April and May, coincident with the phytoplankton spring bloom. A minor spawning was also observed sometime between August and October. However, the offspring from this second spawning contributed only insignificantly to the overwintering stock of C. finmarchicus. Received: 12 September 1997 / Accepted: 1 March 1998     

Effect of snow depth on under-ice irradiance and growth of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aulacoseira baicalensis</Emphasis> in Lake Baikal

Lake Baikal freezes for 4–5 months each year; yet the planktonic diatoms that grow under the ice include some of the largest species found in freshwater. An important factor influencing their growth is the depth of snow. In this study, a population of Aulacoseira baicalensis developed where there was little or no snow on the ice but declined where there was 10 cm of snow, because 99% of the available light was attenuated. Culture studies of light response showed that A. baicalensis was adapted to relatively low light intensities (<40 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) that were close to the average that a cell experiences in L. Baikal when mixed vertically by convection to depths that can exceed 100 m. On sunny days, cell division could be inhibited down to >10 m depth but narrow (<15 μm) diameter cells trapped in high light intensities in sub-ice layers switched to auxosporulation and size regeneration.     

Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the tomato leafminer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tuta absoluta</Emphasis> in laboratory and greenhouse conditions

The tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is an important pest of tomato crops in South America and it has recently arrived in Europe affecting tomato plantations. The susceptibility of T. absoluta larvae and pupae to three species of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) was examined under laboratory conditions. Leaf bioassays were conducted to evaluate the nematode’s capability to reach the larvae and kill them within the galleries. The efficacy of the three nematode species after foliar application to potted tomato plants was evaluated under greenhouse conditions. High larval mortality (78.6–100%) and low pupae mortality (<10%) was determined in laboratory experiments. In the leaf bioassay a high level of larval parasitation (77.1–91.7%) was recorded revealing the nematode’s capacity to kill the larvae inside the galleries. In the pot experiments nematode treatment reduced insect infection of tomato plants by 87–95%. The results demonstrate the suitability of entomopathogenic nematodes for controlling T. absoluta.     

Life cycle of tortoise tick <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hyalomma aegyptium</Emphasis> under laboratory conditions

The tortoise tick Hyalomma aegyptium has a typical three-host life-cycle. Whereas its larvae and nymphs are less host-specific feeding on a variety of tetrapods, tortoises of the genus Testudo are principal hosts of adults. Ticks retained this trait also in our study under laboratory conditions, while adults were reluctant to feed on mammalian hosts. Combination of feeding larvae and nymphs on guinea pigs and feeding of adults on Testudo marginata tortoises provided the best results. Feeding period of females was on average 25 days (range 17–44), whereas males remain after female engorgement on tortoise host. Female pre-oviposition period was 14 days (3–31), followed by 24 days of oviposition (18–29). Pre-eclosion and eclosion, both together, takes 31 days (21–43). Larvae fed 5 days (3–9), then molted to nymphs after 17 days (12–23). Feeding period of nymphs lasted 7 days (5–10), engorged nymphs molted to adults after 24 days (19–26). Sex ratio of laboratory hatched H. aegyptium was nearly equal (1:1.09). The average weight of engorged female was 0.95 (0.72–1.12) g. The average number of laid eggs was 6,900 (6,524–7,532) per female, it was significantly correlated with weight of engorged female. Only 2.8% of engorged larvae and 1.8% of engorged nymphs remained un-molted and died. Despite the use of natural host species, feeding success of females reached only 45%. The whole life-cycle was completed within 147 days (98–215).     

A comparative study of predation of three aquatic heteropteran bugs on Culex quinquefasciatus larvae

The aquatic bugs Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy 1704 (Heteroptera: Notonectidae), Diplonychus (=Sphaerodema) rusticus Fabricius 1781, and Diplonychus annulatus Fabricius 1781 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) are common members of the freshwater insect communities of the East Calcutta Wetlands along the eastern fringe of Kolkata, India. These insects are established predators of dipteran larvae and other organisms. A comparative account of their predatory efficiency was made using larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say 1823 in the laboratory. It was revealed that a single adult of A. bouvieri could consume 28–34 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, D. rusticus 11–87 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, and D. annulatus 33–122 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, depending upon the prey and predator densities. The mean predation rate of A. bouvieri and D. annulatus remained stable over a 6-day feeding period but varied for D. rusticus. The predatory impact (PI) values were 14.77–17.31, 46.9–55.73, and 61.74–72.72 larvae/day for A. bouvieri, D. rusticus, and D. annulatus, respectively. Compared to these, the clearance rate (CR) value range was 9.06–13.25 for A. bouvieri, 13.64–15.99 for D. rusticus, and 13.50–16.52 larvae l/day/predator for D. annulatus. The values of mutual interference, “m,” remained 0.06–0.78 for A. bouvieri, 0.003–0.25 for D. rusticus, and 0.09–0.27 for D. annulatus, and did not vary between the days. The difference in predatory efficiency, CR, and PI values varied significantly among the three predators, indicating the possible difference in the function as predators occupying the same guild. It can be assumed that these predators play an important role in larval population regulation of mosquitoes and thereby impart an effect on species composition and interactions in the aquatic insect communities of the wetlands and other similar habitats where they occur.     

Seasonal and interannual dynamics of larval abundance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mytilus coruscus</Emphasis> Gould, 1861 (Bivalvia: Mytilidae) in Amursky Bay (Peter the Great Bay,Sea of Japan)

Based on an analysis of the gonads, as well as the size composition and abundance of larvae in plankton, we determined the seasonal and long-term dynamics of the reproduction of the mussel Mytilus coruscus in Amursky Bay (Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan). Mussel gonads were in a mature condition in late July-early August; the spawning season continued from mid-August to mid-September. The larvae of this species occurred in plankton from June to September, under surface water temperatures of 14.5–23.5°C. The density of larvae in different years varied from 350 to 4500 ind/m³. Two peaks of larval abundance were observed annually, in June and September. The first peak was apparently provided by allochthonous larvae, the second, by larvae of the local population. The high density of larvae of M. coruscus in the plankton of Peter the Great Bay enabled us to consider this species as a potential object for mariculture.     

Speciation and chromosomal evolution of the Baikalian endemic chironomids of the genus Sergentia Kief. (Diptera, Chironomidae): Karyotype divergence and chromosomal polymorphism in the populations of eurybathic species Sergentia flavodentata Tshern. and littoral species Sergentia baicalensis Tshern

Specific karyotype structure and chromosomal polymorphism was investigated in the populations of the Baikalian endemic chironomid species, eurybathic Sergentia flavodentata Tshernovskij, 1949 and littoral Sergentia baicalensis Tshernovskij, 1949. In addition to two fluctuating homozygous inversions in arms A and E, both species were characterized by species-specific karyotype features, namely, nucleolar organizer in the region 1 of chromosome IV in S. flavodentata, and inversion in arm F in S. baicalensis. Moreover, S. baicalensis demonstrated the presence of intraspecific population polymorphism. The populations differing in the presence of secondary overlapping inversion in arm A were found. The highest number of chromosomal rearrangements (7) was detected in S. flavodentata. Most of these rearrangements (six) were found in the population from the underwater thermal spring at a depth of 420 to 430 m (Northern Baikal, Frolikha Bay). In the populations from Middle and Southern Baikal, a rare pericentric inversion in chromosome I was described. In S. baicalensis, in addition to two common heterozygous inversions in arms C and F, disturbance of homologous pairing in different regions of the remaining arms were often detected. Stable chromosomal polymorphism preserved during 13 years in the population of S. flavodentata from the region of hydrothermal venting, serves as an evidence of high genetic plasticity of the species, which favors successful colonization of different Baikal depths and biotopes. Original Russian Text ? V.I. Proviz, 2008, published in Genetika, 2008, Vol. 44, No. 9, pp. 1191–1202.     

Characterization of 14 novel microsatellite loci in the endangered <Emphasis Type="Italic">Liriodendron chinense</Emphasis> (Magnoliaceae) and cross-species amplification in closely related taxa

Fourteen polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized from an AC-enriched genomic library of Liriodendron chinense (Magnoliaceae). The average allele number of these microsatellites was 5.2 per locus, ranging from three to eight. The observed and expected heterozygosity at population level were 0.07–1.00 and 0.10–0.83, respectively. These sets of microsatellites will be useful for studies of population genetic structure of L. chinense and L. tulipifera as well as to estimate fine-scale gene flow rates.     

Effects of extreme changes of sea water temperature and salinity on the development of the sand dollar <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scaphechinus mirabilis</Emphasis>

The combined effects of temperatures of 14, 17, 20, 22, and 25°C and salinities of 36–12‰ on embryos and larvae of the sand dollar Scaphechinus mirabilis was studied. Embryonic development is the most sensitive stage in the early ontogenesis of S. mirabilis. It is completed at a temperature of 14–20°C in a salinity range of 36–24‰ and at temperature of 22°C to 26‰. The fertilization proceeds in wider ranges of temperature and salinity. Among the swimming larvae, blastulae showed the greatest resistance to variations of these environmental factors. All the larvae survived at a temperature of 14–22°C and a salinity of 36–20‰, and more than 70% of them at 18‰. The pluteus I is the most vulnerable stage; probably this is related to the formation of the larval skeleton and transition to phytoplankton feeding. The survival of larvae at the age of 20 days was 100% at 14–22° C and a salinity of 36–24‰, most of them survived at 14–20°C and a salinity 18‰. The temperature 25 ° C is the most damaging for early development of S. mirabilis. The duration of development of that species lasts 28.5–29 days at 20°C and a salinity of 32.2–32.6‰. At 20 and 22°C, the larvae settled and completed metamorphosis more quickly if sand from the parental habitat was present. The larvae did not settle during the experiment (14 days) at 14 ° C and in the absence of sand.     

Functional response and life history parameters of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apanteles taragamae</Emphasis>, a larval parasitoid of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Maruca vitrata</Emphasis>

The legume pod borer Maruca vitrata Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is a serious pest of cowpea in West-Africa. The parasitoid Apanteles taragamae Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) that originates from Taiwan is a potential candidate for biological control of M. vitrata. We investigated under laboratory conditions the functional response of the parasitoid by offering each experienced female 10, 20, 30 and 40 larvae of M. vitrata. We studied the influence of different host larval ages on the development, longevity, sex ratio, lifetime fecundity and parasitization rate of the wasp. In a comparative study, we also investigated the life history of A. taragamae and M. vitrata at different temperatures in the range of 20–30°C. The parasitoid successfully parasitized two- and three-day-old host larvae (first and second instars). Younger larvae (one-day-old) were parasitized to a lesser extent, and only males developed in them. Older larvae were not parasitized, partly because of defensive host behaviour. The success of parasitization was positively correlated with the density of two-day-old M. vitrata larvae. Parasitoid developmental time and longevity decreased with increasing temperature. The intrinsic rate of population increase (r _m ) exhibited an optimum curve with a maximum at 24–28°C. For the host M. vitrata, r _m was maximal at temperatures of 26–30°C. The data are discussed in the context of the potential of A. taragamae for biological control of M. vitrata.     

The eggs and larvae of the giant mudskipper, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Periophthalmodon schlosseri</Emphasis>, collected from a mudflat in Penang,Malaysia

 Eggs of the giant mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri were collected from a burrow in Penang, Malaysia, in November 1998, and hatched larvae were reared in the laboratory. The eggs were demersal with adhesive filaments and elliptical in shape (0.83–1.43 mm in long-axis diameter). Newly hatched larvae (2.1–2.6 mm in notochord length) possessed a yolk sac. The number of myomeres was 10 + 17 = 27. The mouth and anus were already opened. The larvae started feeding one day after hatching and completely absorbed the yolk by the third day at a water temperature of 24.5–28.0°C. Received: April 9, 2002 / Revised: October 25, 2002 / Accepted: December 10, 2002     

Geographical variation in frond size,rootstock density,and sexual reproduction in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Matteuccia struthiopteris</Emphasis> populations in Norway

The main aim of this study was to quantify differences in the structure of dense Matteuccia struthiopteris (L) Todaro among geographically separated populations in Norway, and to relate these differences to variation in environmental variables. A stratified random sampling procedure was applied to select 4 m² quadrats restricted to populations dominated (>75% cover) by the fern. This dimorphic fern can produce three types of leaves (fronds): fertile (sporophyll) and sterile (trophophyll), and in addition also intermediate fronds. In all, 178 populations from different parts of the country were analysed, and in total 9,346 rootstocks were measured. Fifteen percent of the rootstocks were fertile, each producing from one to eight sporophylls, and 2.0% had developed intermediate fronds. Rootstocks with five or more sporophylls were mainly found in Southern Norway. Within the plots, there were major variations in density (10–112), number of small (new) ramets (0–58), total number of sporophylls (0–94) and estimated total fern wet-weight (0.33–22.8 kg). All new additions to the populations were connected to a mother plant (ramets), and none were of sexual origin (genets). The main environmental variables associated with the variation in population structure were mean July temperature (highly correlated with altitude and latitude), mean precipitation and density of the canopy cover. The density of small ramets and number of intermediate fronds increased from south to north. The latitudinal variation in sporophyll development and maximum trophophyll height was best explained by a unimodal model. There were statistically significant differences in the population structure between the eight studied geographic areas in Norway.     

Pigmented Nanoflagellates Grazing on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Synechococcus</Emphasis>: Seasonal Variations and Effect of Flagellate Size in the Coastal Ecosystem of Subtropical Western Pacific

We investigated seasonal variation of grazing impact of the pigmented nanoflagellates (PNF) with different sizes upon Synechococcus in the subtropical western Pacific coastal waters using grazing experiments with fluorescently labeled Synechococcus (FLS). For total PNF, conspicuous seasonal variations of ingestion rates on Synechococcus were found, and a functional response was observed. To further investigate the impact of different size groups, we separated the PNF into four categories (<3, 3–5, 5–10, and >10 μm). Our results indicated that the smallest PNF (<3 μm PNF) did not ingest FLS and was considered autotrophic. PNF of 3–5 μm in size made up most of the PNF community; however, their ingestion on Synechococcus was too low (0.1–1.9 Syn PNF⁻¹ h⁻¹) to support their growth, and they had to depend on other prey or photosynthesis to survive. The ingestion rate of the 3–5 μm group exhibited no significant seasonal variation; by contrast, the ingestion rates of 5–10 and >10 μm PNFs showed significant seasonal variation. During the warm season, 3–5 μm PNF were responsible for the grazing of 12% of Synechococcus production, 5–10 μm PNF for 48%, and >10 μm PNF for 2%. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the PNF of 3–10 μm consumed most Synechococcus during the warm season and exhibited a significant functional response to the increase in prey concentration.     

Seasonal changes in abundance and spatial distribution of the soil arthropods in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D.Don) plantation,with special reference to collembola and acarina

Seasonal changes in abundance and distribution pattern of soil micro-arthropods were studied in connection with a few environmental factors in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantation. The soil arthropods were sampled from three different depths at intervals of two months for two years. Of the collected animals (total 51000–155000 m⁻²), Collembola (20000–76000 m⁻²), oribatid mites (19000–55000 m⁻²) and carnivorous mites (6200–21000 m⁻²) were the numerically dominant animal groups. Low seasonal variations in abundance indicated their seasonal stability in population levels. The trends in seasonal fluctuation were similar among these groups and between the two years, showing bimodal pattern with little peaks in early summer and winter. The pattern of seasonal fluctuation in abundance of carnivorous mites (P _d) was significantly synchronized with that in the total abundance of Collembola and oribatid mites (P _τ). Thus, the number-ratios (P _d/P _τ) were fairly constant, ranging from 0.10 to 0.25. Seasonal changes in vertical distribution of the three animal groups showed a similar pattern for both years. The downward migrations were shown to be more affected by low temperatures in winter accompanied by snow coverage rather than by the desiccation of the surface soil in summer. All the three groups demonstrated as a whole slightly aggregated patterns of horizontal distribution throughout the two years. Temporal increases in the patchiness indices were observed from summer to autumn when the moisture content of the surface soil was low.     

Early life history of mebaru,sebastes inermis (scorpaenidae), in sendai bay, japan

The early life history of the viviparous scorpaenid,Sebastes inermis, in Sendai Bay, Japan, was studied and early development described. Newborn preflexion larvae ofS. inermis were about 5.2 mm BL. Notochord flexion occurred at 5.4–8.0 mm BL and transformation at 14–20 mm BL. Preflexion and flexion larvae ofS. inermis were distinguished from similar larvae by the pigmentation pattern along the dorsal and ventral midlines of the tail. Pigmentation inS. inermis was light throughout the larval and early juvenile periods. Planktonic larvae were particularly abundant in coastal waters of Sendai Bay but not offshore. Vertical and horizontal larval sampling indicated that early larvae occupied near surface waters and horizontal larval sampling indicated that early larvae shift to a benthic habitat occurred at about 12 mm BL, at the end of the postflexion larval period.Sebastes inermis do not have a distinct pelagic juvenile stage, unlike many North Pacific species ofSebastes.     

Identification and characterization of a novel host–toxin interaction in the wheat–<Emphasis Type="Italic">Stagonospora nodorum</Emphasis> pathosystem

Stagonospora nodorum, casual agent of Stagonospora nodorum blotch (SNB) of wheat, produces a number of host-selective toxins (HSTs) known to be important in disease. To date, four HSTs and corresponding host sensitivity genes have been reported, and all four host–toxin interactions are significant factors in the development of disease. Here, we describe the identification and partial characterization of a fifth S. nodorum produced HST designated SnTox4. The toxin, estimated to be 10–30 kDa in size, was found to be proteinaceous in nature. Sensitivity to SnTox4 is governed by a single dominant gene, designated Snn4, which mapped to the short arm of wheat chromosome 1A in a recombinant inbred (RI) population. The compatible Snn4–SnTox4 interaction is light dependent and results in a mottled necrotic reaction, which is different from the severe necrosis that results from other host–toxin interactions in the wheat–S. nodorum pathosystem. QTL analysis in a population of 200 RI lines derived from the Swiss winter wheat varieties Arina and Forno revealed a major QTL for SNB susceptibility that coincided with the Snn4 locus. This QTL, designated QSnb.fcu-1A, explained 41.0% of the variation in disease on leaves of seedlings indicating that a compatible Snn4–SnTox4 interaction plays a major role in the development of SNB in this population. Additional minor QTL detected on the short arms of chromosomes 2A and 3A accounted for 5.4 and 6.0% of the variation, respectively. The effects of the three QTL were largely additive, and together they explained 50% of the total phenotypic variation. These results provide further evidence that host–toxin interactions in the wheat–S. nodorum pathosystem follow an inverse gene-for-gene model.     

Descriptive morphology of the eggs,larvae, and juveniles of two cyprinid fishes belonging to the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zacco temminckii</Emphasis> species' group

 Embryonic, larval, and juvenile development of two cyprinid species belonging to the Zacco temminckii species' group, Z. temminckii (Temminck and Schlegel) and Zacco sp. (type A), are described and compared with each other from laboratory-reared and wild specimens. The eggs of both species were closely similar except in diameter [1.92–2.20 mm in Z. temminckii vs. 1.60–1.75 mm in Z. sp. (type A)], being demersal, almost spherical in shape, transparent and unpigmented, with a pale yellow yolk, and no oil globule. Hatching occurred 40–53 h after fertilization in Z. temminckii and after 47–60 h in Z. sp. (type A). The newly hatched larvae of both species [4.9–5.3 mm in body length (BL) in Z. temminckii and 3.5–4.8 mm BL in Z. sp. (type A)] also resembled each other, having a large transparent pear-shaped yolk and lacking body pigmentation. Myomere counts of Z. temminckii and Z. sp. (type A) larvae and juveniles were 24–27 + 14–17 = 41–42 and 23–27 + 14–17 = 40–41, respectively. The yolk was completely absorbed at 8.3 mm BL in Z. temminckii and at 6.6 mm BL in Z. sp. (type A). Notochord flexion was initiated and completed at 7.8 mm BL and 8.2 mm BL in Z. temminckii and at 6.3 mm BL and 6.6 mm BL in Z. sp. (type A), respectively. Aggregate numbers of all fin rays were completed at 17 mm BL in Z. temminckii and 13 mm BL in Z. sp. (type A). Although the morphology of larvae and juveniles of both species was very similar, differences in body length of each developmental stage, the duration and process of disappearance of the adipose finfold, the anal fin ray counts, and pigmentation on the lateral body surface were clearly recognized. Received: August 10, 2001 / Revised: March 14, 2002 / Accepted: March 27, 2002     

Settlement behaviour of larvae of the Stripey Snapper, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lutjanus carponotatus</Emphasis> (Teleostei: Lutjanidae)

Larval behaviour is important to dispersal and settlement, but is seldom quantified. Behavioural capabilities of larval Lutjanus carponotatus in both offshore pelagic and reef environments at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef were observed in situ to determine if they were sufficient to influence dispersal. Offshore, larvae swam with higher directional precision and faster on the windward side of the island (28 cm.s⁻¹) than on the leeward side (16 cm s⁻¹). Most larvae swam directionally. Mean swimming directions were southerly in the windward area and northerly in the leeward area. Larvae avoided the surface and remained mostly between 3–15 m. Larvae released near reefs were 2–3 times faster swimming away from reefs (19 cm s⁻¹) than swimming toward or over them (6–8 cm s⁻¹). Speed swimming away was similar to that offshore. Of 41 larvae released near reefs, 73% reached the reef, 59% settled, and 13% of those reaching the reef were eaten. Larvae settled onto hard and soft coral (58%), topographic reef features (29%) and sand and rubble (13%). Settlement depth averaged 5.5 m (2–8 m). Before settling larvae spent up to 800 s over the reef (mean 231 s) and swam up to 53 m (mean 14 m). About half of the larvae interacted with reef residents including predatory attacks and aggressive approaches by residents and aggressive approaches by settling larvae. Settlement behaviour of L. carponotatus was more similar to a serranid than to pomacentrids. Settlement-stage larvae of L. carponotatus are behaviourally capable, and have a complex settlement behaviour.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium rhizogenes</Emphasis> mediated transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scutellaria baicalensis</Emphasis> and production of flavonoids in hairy roots

Using different explants of in vitro seed grown Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi plantlets, hairy roots were induced following inoculation of Agrobacterium rhizogenes strains A₄GUS, R1000 LBA 9402 and ATCC11325. The A₄GUS proved to be more competent than other strains and the highest transformation rates were observed in cotyledonary leaf explant (42.6 %). The transformed roots appeared after 15–20 d of incubation on hormone free Murashige and Skoog medium. Growth of hairy roots was assessed on the basis of total root elongation, lateral root density and biomass accumulation. Maximum growth rate was recorded in root:medium ratio 1:100 (m/v). Hairy root lines were further established in Gamborg B₅ medium and the biomass increase was maximum from 15 to 30 d. PCR, Southern hybridization and RT-PCR confirmed integration and expression of left and right termini-linked Ri T-DNA fragment of the Ri plasmid from A₄GUS into the genome of Scutellaria baicalensis hairy roots. GUS assay was also performed for further integration and expression. All the clones showed higher growth rate them non-transformed root and accumulated considerable amounts of the root-specific flavonoids. Baicalin content was 14.1–30.0 % of dry root mass which was significantly higher then that of control field grown roots (18 %). The wogonin content varies from 0.08 to 0.18 % among the hairy root clones which was also higher than in non-transformed roots (0.07 %).