Field evaluation of a sound system to reduce estuarine fish intake rates at a power plant cooling water inlet

An acoustic deterrent system producing 20–600 Hz sound was used to repel estuarine fishes away from a power station cooling water inlet. During sound emission, total fish impingement decreased by 60%. The avoidance response varied among species from no effect to highly efficient deflection. Lampetra fluviatilis and Pleuronectiformes were less affected by the sound system while the deflection of clupeoid species was particularly effective. Average intake rates of Clupea harengus and Sprattus sprattus decreased by 94·7 and 87·9%, respectively. The results were explained as a function of species‐specific differences in hearing ability and swimming performance. In general, species without swimbladders showed no or a moderate response while intake rates of species with accessory structures increasing the hearing abilities, such as a swimbladder or a functional connection between the swimbladder and the inner ear, were significantly reduced during test periods.     

Fish impingement at power stations situated along the rivers Rhine and Meuse in The Netherlands

Summary Substantial numbers of predominantly O⁺ fish were impinged on the cooling water screens of Harculo, Gelderland, Merwedehaven and Amer power stations. Low numbers were impinged at the two stations located on the river Meuse (Maas and Claus). Two possible reasons for this difference are suggested,viz. a low fish density in the river Meuse and the deep position of the cooling water intakes. In comparison with Bergum power station situated on a lake the impingement rate at the river stations was more than ten times as low.Most fish were impinged during the summer months when large numbers of juvenile fish are present in the rivers. Dominating species impinged were roach, pikeperch, bream and perch. The abundance of pikeperch in the screensamples, points to a recent increase in the population of pikeperch in the rivers. The growth pattern of O⁺ pikeperch and O⁺ roach during summer seemed very similar for power stations located at different rivers. Thirty fish species and four crustacean species were collected, among whichOrconectus limosus was quite abundant at Maas and Claus power stations.     

Modeling possible cooling-water intake system impacts on Ohio River fish populations

To assess the possible impacts caused by cooling-water intake system entrainment and impingement losses, populations of six target fish species near power plants on the Ohio River were modeled. A Leslie matrix model was constructed to allow an evaluation of bluegill, freshwater drum, emerald shiner, gizzard shad, sauger, and white bass populations within five river pools. Site-specific information on fish abundance and length-frequency distribution was obtained from long-term Ohio River Ecological Research Program and Ohio River Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO) electrofishing monitoring programs. Entrainment and impingement data were obtained from 316(b) demonstrations previously completed at eight Ohio River power plants. The model was first run under a scenario representative of current conditions, which included fish losses due to entrainment and impingement. The model was then rerun with these losses added back into the populations, representative of what would happen if all entrainment and impingement losses were eliminated. The model was run to represent a 50-year time period, which is a typical life span for an Ohio River coal-fired power plant. Percent changes between populations modeled with and without entrainment and impingement losses in each pool were compared to the mean interannual coefficient of variation (CV), a measure of normal fish population variability. In 6 of the 22 scenarios of fish species and river pools that were evaluated (6 species x 5 river pools, minus 8 species/river pool combinations that could not be evaluated due to insufficient fish data), the projected fish population change was greater than the expected variability of the existing fish population, indicating a possible adverse environmental impact. Given the number of other variables affecting fish populations and the conservative modeling approach, which assumed 100% mortality for all entrained fish and eggs, it was concluded that the likelihood of impact was by no means assured, even in these six cases. It was concluded that in most cases, current entrainment and impingement losses at six Ohio River power plants have little or no effect at the population level.     

Fish impingement at estuarine power stations and its significance to commercial fishing

The abstraction of cooling water at power stations sited on tidal waters inevitably leads to mortalities of some fish which are drawn in with the cooling water supply and become impinged on the intake screens. These fish are predominantly 0- or I-group juveniles which, owing to their small size, are unable to resist intake currents.
Commercial fishermen often object to the fact that juvenile fish are killed in this way. Their concern stems from the fact that, in order to protect stocks, commercial fishing is restricted to fish which are above a statutory minimum landing size, whereas the majority of fish killed by impingement are below this size.
This paper considers the significance of impingement mortalities at estuarine sites in Britain for six commercially important species: cod, Gadus morhua , whiting, Merlangius merlangus , plaice, Pleuronectes platessa , dab, Limanda limanda , sole, Solea solea and herring, Clupea harengus . Life tables are used to establish expected survival trajectories for each species and to compute reproductive potential. Each fish killed on intake screens is then considered in terms of the fraction of the reproductive potential of a single adult at maturity, and is ascribed an 'adult equivalent' value. Total catches of mixed juveniles and adults are then presented as 'adult equivalent' values. The results are then compared with commercial landings data and it is shown that catches by power stations are trivial in comparison with commercial landings.     

Biology of the sand-smelt (Atherina presbyter Valenciennes) around Fawley power station

Past studies of fish impingement at Fawley power station have shown that sand-smelts, Atherina presbyter Valenciennes, are susceptible to impingement and may be a useful species for examining effects of impingement mortalities on population size and structure. A 21 month study of populations in the vicinity of Fawley power station was carried out to obtain data on the biology of the species for future population dynamics modelling studies. Aspects included in the study were growth, sex ratio, reproduction, survival and mortality rates and diet. Differences in apparent and true rates of growth indicated some size-selective mortality towards younger age groups, possibly caused by the power station. A seasonallyoscillating von Bertalanffy growth equation is given to predict mean length-at-age. Most female sand-smelts (73%) matured at the end of their first year of life, fecundities ranging on average from 1394 eggs per female for 1+ group fish to 6872 for III+ fish. The sex ratio was even (1 : 1). An annual survival rate of 10–8% was estimated for mature fish, and the consequent age structure of the population indicates that the bulk of egg production lies with the smaller (1+ group) fish. Since smaller fish are generally more vulnerable to impingement this factor may render populations sensitive to impingement mortalities. Gut content analysis indicated that sand-smelts probably actively select zooplankters from the general plankton when young and, once larger than 104 mm in length, increasingly feed upon natant macrofaunal species.     

Fluktuationen der Fischfauna im Elbe-Ästuar als Indikator für ein gestörtes Ökosystem

During 1978, 22 fish species (in particularAnguilla anguilla L.,Platichthys flesus L.,Osmerus eperlanus L.,Gasterosteus aculeatus L.,Lampetra fluviatilis L.,Alosa fallax [Lacepede],Gymnocephalus cernua L.,Clupea harengus L. andSprattus sprattus L.), sampled at the intake of the cooling system in the nuclear power plant at Brunsbüttel (Elbe estuary), were analyzed for quantities and size distribution. The data obtained were correlated to abiotic factors, such as water temperature, water outflow from the upper Elbe river, salinity and oxygen content. Spawning times and seasonal migrations of the fish species investigated corresponded to appropriate temperatures of the Elbe water. The diversity of fish species from the cooling water proved to be representative for the ichthyo-fauna of this particular estuarine area. At least 190 tons of fish per year were estimated to be annihilated by the suction of cooling water into the nuclear power plant. In spite of the progressive development of regional industries and the increasing discharges of cooling water, temperature in the estuary has remained largely unaffected up till now. The oxygen content of the heavily polluted lower Elbe river, however, has become mainly dependent on the amount of fresh water flowing from the upper Elbe river. Up to 1978, oxygen levels of 80–90 % were recorded only in the mouth of the Elbe, thus meeting the requirements for the continuous occurrence of fish species typical for this estuarine area. Varying oxygen concentrations downstream of Hamburg and at Brunsbüttel are considered to be responsible for migrations of certain fish species (mainly flounder and smelt) between the Brunsbüttel region and their habitats further upstream which were occupied before the process of industrialisation initiated. This was reflected by the size of the samples taken from various fishes. During an eventual hazard of the industrial filter plants at Brunsbüttel in May 1978 an extreme oxygen depletion occurred for nearly 2 weeks. This event coincided with the death of certain age groups of fish.     

Approach velocity and impingement duration influences the mortality of juvenile Golden Perch (Macquaria ambigua) at a fish exclusion screen

Globally, the extraction and diversion of water from river systems has had substantial impacts on aquatic ecosystem health and ecological processes. One such impact is the entrainment of fish at pump offtakes that can result in vast quantities of fish being permanently removed from rivers. Exclusion screens to prevent fish entrainment at pump offtakes are therefore an important management consideration. In this study, impingement and subsequent injury and mortality of a juvenile freshwater perciform, Golden Perch (Macquaria ambigua), was assessed in the laboratory using a simulated fish exclusion screen under a range of velocities and impingement durations. A 2 mm wedge‐wire screen eliminated the entrainment of 44‐day‐old Golden Perch that were exposed to approach velocities between 0.05 and 0.3 m/s. However, impingement rates of Golden Perch increased significantly with increased approach velocities and rates of injury and mortality increased with impingement duration. Results from this study indicate the primary mechanisms to reduce fish loss at pump offtakes are to design pump offtakes, fitted with fish exclusion screens, which limit approach velocities or impingement duration. Further studies are required to examine a range of species with varying swimming ability at early life‐history stages. Such data will contribute to the growing body of knowledge that supports adaptive management plans to prevent fish loss at water offtake pumps.     

Long-term monitoring of the coral reef fish communities around a nuclear power plant

Over the past 21 years (1979–1999) we have observed temporal changes in the fish communities on a coral reef around a nuclear power plant in southern Taiwan. Data used for analyses were collected bimonthly by scuba-diving ichthyologists at four sub-tidal stations (Stations A, B, D, E). The commercial operation of the nuclear power plant was launched in the summer of 1984. During the study period the number of fish species varies, with the coefficient of variation (CV) ranging from 19.0% (Station A) to 25.2% (Station D). Nevertheless, the sequential data on number of species follow a random trend in terms of runs up and down at all four stations. This characteristic persists both before and after the initiation of power plant operation. Dendrograms drawn using UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages) on the dissimilarity coefficients between yearly fish occurrences show that the years 1980–1984 are more closely grouped than any other years. This phenomenon prevails at all stations, indicating that wide-scale change occurred between 1984 and 1985. After the power plant began operation, changes in water temperature were minute at these sub-tidal stations. Impacts from other sources such as chlorine release and fish impingement seem remote. We believe temporal variations in the studied fish communities can be better explained as arising from natural fluctuations of environmental factors as well as physical disturbance caused by typhoons. The latter factor is also thought to account for the major faunal change between 1984 and 1985.     

A holistic look at minimizing adverse environmental impact under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act

Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) requires that "the location, design, construction, and capacity of cooling water intake structures reflect the best technology available for minimizing adverse environmental impact." As the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops new regulations to implement Section 316(b), much of the debate has centered on adverse impingement and entrainment impacts of cooling-water intake structures. Depending on the specific location and intake layout, once-through cooling systems withdrawing many millions of gallons of water per day can, to a varying degree, harm fish and other aquatic organisms in the water bodies from which the cooling water is withdrawn. Therefore, opponents of once-through cooling systems have encouraged the EPA to require wet or dry cooling tower systems as the best technology available (BTA), without considering site-specific conditions. However, within the context of the broader scope of the CWA mandate, this focus seems too narrow. Therefore, this article examines the phrase "minimizing adverse environmental impact" in a holistic light. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of the terms "environmental" and "minimizing." Congress chose "environmental" in lieu of other more narrowly focused terms like "impingement and entrainment," "water quality," or "aquatic life." In this light, BTA for cooling-water intake structures must minimize the entire suite of environmental impacts, as opposed to just those associated with impingement and entrainment. Wet and dry cooling tower systems work well to minimize entrainment and impingement, but they introduce other equally important impacts because they impose an energy penalty on the power output of the generating unit. The energy penalty results from a reduction in plant operating efficiency and an increase in internal power consumption. As a consequence of the energy penalty, power companies must generate additional electricity to achieve the same net output. This added production leads to additional environmental impacts associated with extraction and processing of the fuel, air emissions from burning the fuel, and additional evaporation of freshwater supplies during the cooling process. Wet towers also require the use of toxic biocides that are subsequently discharged or disposed. The other term under consideration, "minimizing," does not equal "eliminating." Technologies may be available to minimize but not totally eliminate adverse environmental impacts.     

The population structure and growth of juvenile Rhabdosargus holubi (Steindachner) (Teleostei: Sparidae) in a closed estuary

The population structure and growth rate of Rhabdosargus holubi (Steindachner) in the closed West Kleinemond estuary in south east Africa, from 1971–973, are described. Juvenile R. holubi invade the estuary at a length of 1–2 cm but migrate back to the sea at a length of about 14 cm without attaining maturity in the estuary. Adult R. holubi are rarely encountered in estuaries. The annual growth increment of O group R. holubi was 6 cm, almost all occurring in summer. The growth of Lithognathus lithognathus (Cuvier) was also measured in the same closed estuary and O group fish of this species also grew 6 cm per annum although 1 + fish grew 8 cm per annum.     

长江河口潮间带鱼类群落的时空变化

根据2006年3-11月每月在长江口4个潮间带站点的36网次鱼类采样数据,分析了该水域鱼类群落组成的时空变化特征.结果表明：本次调查采获鱼类55种,隶属20科,其中,鲤科鱼类最多,有18种,占总种数的32.7%,虾虎鱼科其次,有8种,占14.5%,石首鱼科4种,占7.3%;调查水域潮间带鱼类群落可分为口内淡水区鱼类群落和河口咸淡水区鱼类群落2组,河口咸淡水区鱼类的物种多样性比口内淡水区略低,其中,口内淡水区以油似鳊和鳊等淡水鱼类为优势种,河口咸水区以斑尾刺虾虎鱼、鲻和棘头梅童等咸淡水鱼类为优势种;二组间鱼类种类组成的平均相异性为80.75%,23种鱼类对平均相异性的累积贡献率>90%,主要贡献来自油鲻、斑尾刺虾虎鱼、棘头梅童鱼、似鳊、红狼牙虾虎鱼、鲫、鳊和长蛇鮈等;春季的研究区鱼类群落丰度与夏、秋两季均存在一定程度的差异,而夏、秋两季间的差异相对较小.就单组鱼类群落丰度而言,水温对其季节变化的影响较盐度大,而盐度对整个河口鱼类群落的影响较水温大.     

Movements of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in an estuary in south-west England

In the years 1985–1987, salmon were tracked in the estuary of the River Fowey, Cornwall using the 'sonar buoy' system developed at the M.A.F.F. Fisheries laboratory and described by Solomon & Potter (1988). Sixty-one salmon were caught and tagged in the estuary, 25 with radio and 36 with combined radio and acoustic transmitters. About half these fish were not recorded entering the freshwater reaches of the R. Fowey, and from tag recoveries it seems likely that about 27% were returning to other rivers. For fish returning to the R. Fowey the time between tagging and entry into fresh water varied between 9 h and 130 days. In the estuary the fish largely moved in the same direction as the tidal currents, although movements over the ground against the current were more common in the bottom 2 km and the top 2 km. During periods of low river-flow in summer all salmon tracked in the estuary dropped back out to sea where they stayed for varying periods: some of these made several sorties past the estuary mouth and on occasions well up the estuary before finally entering fresh water. During periods of higher river discharge, in both the summer and the autumn, some fish remained in the estuary for longer periods, sometimes holding position in deep, sheltered water. Most fish entered fresh water at night during periods of increased freshwater discharge, although at very high flows fish also entered in daylight.     

First results with a new estuarine fish tracking system

A 'sonar buoy' tracking system has been developed at the MAFF Fisheries Laboratory based upon acoustic transmitting tags and relay units which retransmit the pulsed acoustic signal as a radio signal. The output from several such 'sonar buoys' is monitored by a single automatic recording station on the shore. The system has been used on salmon in the estuary of the River Fowey in Cornwall, providing useful data on the behaviour of returning adults before they enter the river. The tags also transmit a radio frequency signal to allow tracking in the river itself. Of fourteen fish tagged in 1985, six were recorded entering the river between 12 h and 41 days after being released. Another fish was recaptured in a coastal net 160 km to the east. These few preliminary results indicated two distinct patterns of behaviour: one fish remained in deep water in the lower estuary for several days, often lying near moored ships or jetties; at other times fish made extensive excursions up the estuary with the tide, usually returning with the ebb.     

Spatial analysis of stable isotope data to determine primary sources of nutrition for fish

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes were used to determine the ultimate autotrophic sources supporting production of three commercially important fish species over unvegetated mudflats in a subtropical estuary. Mean isotope values over the whole estuary for fish and autotroph sources were modeled to indicate feasible combinations of sources. Variability in isotope values among nine locations (separated by 3-10 km) was then used as a further test of the likelihood that sources were involved in fish nutrition. A positive spatial correlation between isotope values of a fish species and an autotroph indicates a substantial contribution from the autotroph. Spatial correlations were tested with a newly developed randomization procedure using differences between fish and autotroph values at each location, based on carbon and nitrogen isotopes combined in two-dimensional space. Both whole estuary modeling and spatial analysis showed that seagrass, epiphytic algae and particulate organic matter in the water column, including phytoplankton, are likely contributors to bream (Acanthopagrus australis) nutrition. However, spatial analysis also showed that mangroves were involved (up to 33% contribution), despite a very low contribution from whole estuary modeling. Spatial analysis on sand whiting (Sillago ciliata) demonstrated the importance of two sources, mangroves (up to 25%) and microalgae on the mudflats, considered unimportant based on whole estuary modeling. No spatial correlations were found between winter whiting (Sillago maculata) and autotrophs, either because fish moved among locations or relied on different autotrophs at different locations. Spatial correlations between consumer and source isotope values provide a useful analytical tool for identifying the role of autotrophs in foodwebs, and demonstrated here that both in situ production of microalgae and organic matter from adjacent habitats were important to fish over mudflats.     

Spatial and temporal variations in fish populations in the upper Thames estuary

Between February 1989 and August 1990, the upper Thames estuary contained 23 species of fish. Fish numbers were higher and relatively constant in the uppermost part of the estuary. Number of species was augmented in summer from fresh water and from downstream, coinciding with high temperature, low flow and high salinity. The eight most abundant species contributed to 98·5% of the total number. Flounder Pleuronectes flesus , dace Leuciscus leuciscus and perch Perca fluviatilis , recruited from May to August, and common goby Pomatoschistus microps , roach Rutilus rutilus and chub Leuciscus cephalus , from August to November. The upper estuary (salinity 0·34–2·96 p.s.u.) formed a species transition area between the freshwater but salinity-resistant roach, chub, and gudgeon Gobio gobio upstream, and the estuarine eurhyhaline common goby and flounder downstream. The three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus and cyprinids were more abundant at upstream while perch was more abundant at downstream sites. High abundances of gudgeon, chub and roach were associated with high transparency and dissolved oxygen and low salinity, while high abundances of perch were associated with high salinity and low transparency. Dace and three-spined stickleback were associated with high dissolved oxygen and low pH, and common goby with high pH. Flounder showed no clear preferences.     

The role of fish studies in estuarine pollution assessment

The environmental quality objective and standards (EQO/EQS) approach to controlling and assessing estuarine pollution is described together with details of the information necessary to assess the health of the fish populations and determine whether the EQO/EQS are being met in an estuary. These concepts are illustrated by examples from the Forth estuary, Scotland, involving studies of the ecology, pathology, biochemistry and contaminant bioaccumulation of fish in relation to the benthos, water quality and anthropogenic influences.     

Migration, growth and survival of wild and hatchery-reared anadromous Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) in Finnmark, Northern Norway

Two groups of anadromous Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus ) (size 200–350 mm) reared in heated water (6–12° C) under simulated natural photoperiod were individually tagged and released in spring 1988. The fish were released at two sites, in the estuary of the River Halselva and in the fjord, 2 km from the river mouth. Growth, timing of migration and survival of these hatchery-reared fish was compared to that of wild anadromous charr of the same size over a 4-year period. The hatchery-reared charr had poorer growth than the wild fish during their first year in sea water. They also resided longer in the sea and had a slightly lower survival than wild fish. During the second year, hatchery-reared charr displayed good growth, and after the third sea-season the fish were ready for slaughter at a size of approximately 800g. The results suggest that the successful development of Arctic charr ranching will be dependent upon production and release strategies that lead to improved migratory and feeding behaviour of the fish during their first season at sea.     

Natural variations in estuarine fish,fish odor,and zooplankton photobehavior

ABSTRACT

Fish odor induces predator avoidance behaviors in zooplankton, like vertical migration, by making zooplankton more responsive to light. Odor cues that alter behavior in marine crustacean zooplankton in the laboratory include sulfated glycosaminoglycans (sGAGs) derived from fish body mucus. Few studies quantify these cues in estuarine/marine environments or assess whether laboratory studies reflect natural scenarios. We collected fish and water samples weekly in Broadkill River, Delaware, USA. We used field-collected water in colorimetric assays to determine the concentration of sGAG-equivalent molecules and in behavioral assays with a zooplankton model, brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) nauplii, which only descend in response to downwelling light after fish odor exposure. Fish quantity was positively related to sGAG-equivalents and zooplankton photosensitivity, indicated by descent responses at lower light levels and across a broad intensity range. Our results support that fish odor concentrations used in previous laboratory assays are consistent with levels found in an estuary.     

Distribution of endosulfan in water, sediment and fish from Warri river, Niger delta, Nigeria

This article presents the first attempt to quantify the levels and distribution pattern of endosulfan, an organochlorine pesticide in surface water, sediment and fish ( Chrysichthys furcatus and Tilapia zilli ). The samples were collected from three stations (Ovwian, Ekakpamre and Ovu) of Warri River in the western Niger Delta of Nigeria in 2006 during the dry and wet seasons (January–August). A total of 96 samples made up of 24 samples each for water, sediment and fish were analysed in this study. The pesticide levels were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC model CECIL 1010) to elucidate its distribution in various environmental compartments. The ranges of concentrations of the pesticide in the matrices were: 0.01–9.23 μg/l (water), 0.06–11.98 μg/gdw (sediment), 0.01–15.06 μg/gdw ( Chrysichthys furcatus) and 0.01–1.80 μg/gdw ( Tilapia zilli ). From this result, decreasing order of occurrence of the pesticide is as follows: fish > sediment > water. The concentrations observed in fish ( Chrysichthys furcatus ) were higher than the levels observed in sediment and water suggesting bioaccumulation of the pesticide by the fish. Spatial variations occurred with downstream stations having statistically higher concentrations in all matrices at P  < 0.05. Seasonal variations occurred with higher concentrations in dry season for water and sediment only, while the fish species had higher concentrations in the wet season. The observed values of endosulfan were above the ecological bench marks (0.02 μg/l) recommended by Nigeria Environmental Protection Agency and European Union. They were also relatively higher than those in previous studies on the Nigerian environment, an observation that calls for regular monitoring of the Niger Delta water bodies.     

Effects of temperature on the growth and survival of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L.

Experiments to determine the growth rate of eels ( Anguilla anguilla L.) at different temperatures are described and show the optimum temperature for growth to be 22–23° C. The ultimate upper lethal temperature was found to be 38° C and the critical thermal maximum varied from 33 to 39° C for fish acclimated at 14 to 29° C. An attempt was also made to determine lower lethal temperatures. Eels enter a state of torpor at temperatures varying from 3° C for fish acclimated at 29° C to less than 1° C for fish acclimated at 23° C or below. The results have been used to estimate the growth rates expected from eels cultured in power station cooling water using different types of temperature control.