Rewilding the tropics,and other conservation translocations strategies in the tropical Asia‐Pacific region

Alarm over the prospects for survival of species in a rapidly changing world has encouraged discussion of translocation conservation strategies that move beyond the focus of ‘at‐risk’ species. These approaches consider larger spatial and temporal scales than customary, with the aim of recreating functioning ecosystems through a combination of large‐scale ecological restoration and species introductions. The term ‘rewilding’ has come to apply to this large‐scale ecosystem restoration program. While reintroductions of species within their historical ranges have become standard conservation tools, introductions within known paleontological ranges—but outside historical ranges—are more controversial, as is the use of taxon substitutions for extinct species. Here, we consider possible conservation translocations for nine large‐bodied taxa in tropical Asia‐Pacific. We consider the entire spectrum of conservation translocation strategies as defined by the IUCN in addition to rewilding. The taxa considered are spread across diverse taxonomic and ecological spectra and all are listed as ‘endangered’ or ‘critically endangered’ by the IUCN in our region of study. They all have a written and fossil record that is sufficient to assess past changes in range, as well as ecological and environmental preferences, and the reasons for their decline, and they have all suffered massive range restrictions since the late Pleistocene. General principles, problems, and benefits of translocation strategies are reviewed as case studies. These allowed us to develop a conservation translocation matrix, with taxa scored for risk, benefit, and feasibility. Comparisons between taxa across this matrix indicated that orangutans, tapirs, Tasmanian devils, and perhaps tortoises are the most viable taxa for translocations. However, overall the case studies revealed a need for more data and research for all taxa, and their ecological and environmental needs. Rewilding the Asian‐Pacific tropics remains a controversial conservation strategy, and would be difficult in what is largely a highly fragmented area geographically.     

An early evaluation of translocation actions for endangered plant species on Mediterranean islands

In situ conservation is widely considered a primary conservation strategy. Plant translocation, specifically, represents an important tool for reducing the extinction risk of threatened species. However, thus far, few documented translocations have been carried out in the Mediterranean islands. The CareMediflora project, carried out on six Mediterranean islands, tackles both short-and long-term needs for the insular endangered plants through in situ and ex situ conservation actions. The project approach is based on using ex situ activities as a tool to improve in situ conservation of threatened plant species.Fifty island plants(representing 45 taxa) were selected for translocations using common criteria.During the translocations, several approaches were used, which differed in site selection method, origin of genetic material, type of propagative material, planting method, and more. Although only preliminary data are available, some general lessons can be learned from the experience of the CareMediflora project. Among the factors restricting the implementation of translocations, limited financial resources appear to be the most important. Specific preliminary management actions, sometimes to be reiterated after translocation, increase the overall cost, but often are necessary for translocation success. Translocation using juvenile/reproductive plants produces better results over the short term,although seeds may provide good results over the long run(to be assessed in the future). Regardless,plant translocation success can only be detected over long periods; therefore, proper evaluation of plant translocations requires a long-term monitoring protocol. Care-Mediflora project represents the first attempt to combine the existing approaches in a common plant conservation strategy specifically focusing on the Mediterranean islands.     

Translocations of digging mammals and their potential for ecosystem restoration: a review of goals and monitoring programmes

1. Globally, translocations are commonly used to improve the conservation status of threatened species. There is increasing recognition that translocations of ecosystem engineers also have the potential to restore ecological processes. Digging mammals are often considered to be ecosystem engineers, as their diggings provide shelter for other species and can significantly alter soil properties, with subsequent changes to vegetation.
2. Using Australian species as a case study, we reviewed published and grey literature on digging mammal translocations to determine how often these translocations are conducted to restore ecosystem processes. We documented ecosystem-level monitoring and research efforts, and assessed whether restoration was perceived to be occurring post-release.
3. At least 208 translocations of 24 digging mammal species have been conducted in Australia, with a further 38 planned for the near future. Prior to 2019, only 3% of translocations included a goal relating to the restoration of ecosystem processes associated with digging activities. Nearly a quarter of pre-2019 translocations have been the subject of some form of ecosystem-level monitoring or research, but long-term ecosystem-level monitoring was very rare. In contrast, 74% of the translocations planned for post-2018 include a goal relating to the restoration of ecological processes and most also include plans to conduct ecosystem-level monitoring.
4. Ecosystem restoration was perceived to be occurring for 26% of the pre-2019 translocations. None of the documents we reviewed indicated that ecological degradation had occurred post-translocation, even when declines in other taxa were recorded.
5. The restoration of ecosystem processes is increasingly being identified as a goal for translocation programmes. Where this is the case, we suggest that translocation practitioners include success criteria for the restoration of ecosystem processes, and commit to long-term monitoring designed to detect ecosystem-level effects of translocations.

     

A framework for assessing readiness for tiger <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panthera tigris</Emphasis> reintroduction: a case study from eastern Cambodia

Reintroduction is a viable conservation strategy for large carnivores however such reintroductions require robust feasibility assessments, considering ecological, management, and social factors, prior to implementation. Plans are being developed in a number of tiger range countries, including Cambodia, for tiger Panthera tigris reintroductions in response to local and national extinctions. We provide a framework for undertaking feasibility assessments for tiger, and other large carnivore, reintroductions and present a number of methodological tools, and appropriate indicators, for conducting such assessments. We apply the framework to plans by the Royal Government of Cambodia for tiger reintroduction into Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary (formally Mondulkiri Protected Forest), eastern Cambodia. Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary forms part of a large (>13,000-km²) trans-boundary conservation landscape with potential to support a tiger source population. Current ungulate prey densities, assessed through robust line-transect sampling, at approximately 5.0 individuals per km² may be sufficient to support a breeding tiger population. However levels of protected area management and law enforcement fall below global standards for tiger recovery. Local communities, though supportive of conservation efforts, also identified a number of concerns regarding reintroduction. Therefore current ecological, social, and management conditions within SWS are not currently suitable for tiger reintroduction. However with improved and more effective law enforcement, combined with robust monitoring of the indicators within our framework, such conditions could be met. We recommend that our framework for assessing landscape suitability for reintroductions offers an effective road map for reintroduction-based recovery of tiger populations across tiger range countries.     

Evaluating the role of environmental familiarity and behaviour in the success of wildlife translocation: A grizzly bear case study using agent-based modelling

Human-carnivore systems are built on multi-scalar complex processes often resulting in conflicts that force wildlife managers to address what are conceived as problem individuals. In North America, the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) is often involved in human-bear conflict with management measures such as translocations, in which problem individuals are moved to new areas, being used to reduce conflict risk. While translocations offer a non-lethal alternative to managing conflict animals, they show varying levels of success. Our objective was to perform a novel assessment of grizzly bear translocation success through agent-based simulation by evaluating how familiarity with landscape features coupled with behavioral traits affects the way individuals use resources in a new environment. Our results showed that bears translocated to familiar habitat used high-quality habitat more than bears moved to areas with unfamiliar landscape characteristics. Increased exploration led to greater use of high-quality habitat in the long run but resulted in reduced use of high-quality habitat during the first two years following a translocation. Habitat quality use depended on scale, with bears translocated to less familiar environments accessing higher quality areas at a finer scale than bears translocated to familiar habitats. We emphasize the need to account for wildlife behavioral traits and habitat characteristics at multiple scales when selecting suitable translocation locations. Understanding the role of factors such as these on translocation outcome will help ensure the success of translocations not only as a method for managing problem wildlife, but also for population restoration, species reestablishment, and conservation translocations across the globe.     

Manipulating animal social interactions to enhance translocation impact

Species’ ecological interactions, evolutionary trajectories, and survival strategies are intertwined with their social relationships. Conservation translocations can disrupt social systems, interrupting the mechanisms driving population and ecosystem trends. We outline a research framework to provide targeted tools for translocation practitioners, where appropriate, while advancing the theoretical understanding of social resiliency.     

Translocations as experiments in the ecological resilience of an asocial mega-herbivore

Species translocations are remarkable experiments in evolutionary ecology, and increasingly critical to biodiversity conservation. Elaborate socio-ecological hypotheses for translocation success, based on theoretical fitness relationships, are untested and lead to complex uncertainty rather than parsimonious solutions. We used an extraordinary 89 reintroduction and 102 restocking events releasing 682 black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) to 81 reserves in southern Africa (1981-2005) to test the influence of interacting socio-ecological and individual characters on post-release survival. We predicted that the socio-ecological context should feature more prominently after restocking than reintroduction because released rhinoceros interact with resident conspecifics. Instead, an interaction between release cohort size and habitat quality explained reintroduction success but only individuals' ages explained restocking outcomes. Achieving translocation success for many species may not be as complicated as theory suggests. Black rhino, and similarly asocial generalist herbivores without substantial predators, are likely to be resilient to ecological challenges and robust candidates for crisis management in a changing world.     

Review and analysis of Australian macropod translocations 1969–2006

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Translocations: Providing Outcomes for Wildlife, Resource Managers, Scientists, and the Human Community

The World Conservation Union (1987) defines a translocation as a release of animals with the intention of establishing, reestablishing, or augmenting an existing population. Despite frequent use as a tool for the management of threatened and endangered wildlife, the full benefits of translocations often go unrealized. In this article, I demonstrate how translocations can achieve outputs for conservation management, conservation science, and the wider human community, using North Island (NI) Saddleback or Tieke ( Philesturnus rufusater ) as an illustrative example. From a conservation management perspective, NI Saddleback have been salvaged from a relic population of less than 500 birds on 484-ha Hen Island to a metapopulation of approximately 6,000 birds on 13 offshore islands and at two mainland New Zealand sites. These translocations have reduced the risk of global extinction for this species and helped restore the ecosystems involved. All these translocations have occurred in the past 42 years from known source populations and with known numbers of birds released. The resulting replicated serial population bottlenecks provide numerous scientific opportunities for conservation and biological research. Although the first Saddleback translocations were to reserves closed to the public, subsequent translocations have been to open reserves, providing the wider human community with an opportunity to see and be actively involved in the management of a threatened endemic species. This has raised the profile of both NI Saddleback and other species and has provided wider community conservation benefits. These three outputs illustrate the value of translocations for resource management and conservation science and for increasing community interest, participation, and investment in biological conservation.     

Engage the hodgepodge: management factors are essential when prioritizing areas for restoration and conservation action

Restoration and conservation initiatives, such as the eradication of invasive alien plants, should be guided by scientific evidence. Typically, ecological data alone is used to inform the decision‐making of these initiatives. Recent advances in the mapping of conservation opportunity include a diverse range of scientifically‐identified factors that determine the feasibility and likely effectiveness of conservation initiatives, and include, for example, data on the willingness and capacity of land managers to be effectively involved. Social research techniques such as interview surveys, phenomenology, and social network analysis are important approaches for securing useful human and social data. These approaches are yet to be widely adopted in restoration initiatives, but could be usefully applied to improve the effective implementation of these initiatives. Restoration and conservation planners will deliver spatial prioritisations which provide more effective and cost‐efficient decision‐making if they include not simply ecological data, but also data on economic, human, management, social and vulnerability factors that determine implementation effectiveness.     

Using Qualitative Disease Risk Analysis for Herpetofauna Conservation Translocations Transgressing Ecological and Geographical Barriers

Through the exploration of disease risk analysis methods employed for four different UK herpetofauna translocations, we illustrate how disease hazards can be identified, and how the risk of disease can be analysed. Where ecological or geographical barriers between source and destination sites exist, parasite populations are likely to differ in identity or strain between the two sites, elevating the risk from disease and increasing the number and category of hazards requiring analysis. Simplification of the translocation pathway through the avoidance of these barriers reduces the risk from disease. The disease risk analysis tool is intended to aid conservation practitioners in decision making relating to disease hazards prior to implementation of a translocation.     

Using Qualitative Disease Risk Analysis for Herpetofauna Conservation Translocations Transgressing Ecological and Geographical Barriers

Through the exploration of disease risk analysis methods employed for four different UK herpetofauna translocations, we illustrate how disease hazards can be identified, and how the risk of disease can be analysed. Where ecological or geographical barriers between source and destination sites exist, parasite populations are likely to differ in identity or strain between the two sites, elevating the risk from disease and increasing the number and category of hazards requiring analysis. Simplification of the translocation pathway through the avoidance of these barriers reduces the risk from disease. The disease risk analysis tool is intended to aid conservation practitioners in decision making relating to disease hazards prior to implementation of a translocation.

     

Trends in lizard translocations in New Zealand between 1988 and 2013

There is growing concern about mitigation-driven translocations that move animals from anthropogenic threats at donor sites because of their failure rate and lack of application of scientific principles and best practice. We reviewed all known lizard translocations in New Zealand between 1988 and 2013 and identified 85 translocations of 30 lizard taxa to 46 release sites. Most translocations (62%) were motivated by conservation goals for the species or the release site, and one-third were mitigation-driven translocations, typically motivated by habitat loss due to development. Mitigation-driven translocations began in 2003, and since that time have equalled the number of conservation-motivated translocations. Conservation-motivated translocations usually released lizards on islands without mammalian predators, whereas mitigation-driven translocations usually relocated lizards to mainland sites with introduced predators. Long-term monitoring has been sparse and often rudimentary. Eight lizard translocations have recorded population growth, including one mitigation-driven translocation that was into a fenced reserve. Research on commonly used management techniques to mitigate human-related impacts is recommended to establish whether these techniques benefit lizards in the long term.     

Birds and people: from conflict to coexistence

Negative interactions between humans and animals are becoming increasingly frequent, as wild habitats shrink and human presence and activities expand throughout the world. Conflicts between people over conservation are one of the outcomes of this increased interaction, with severe consequences for both wildlife and people. Globally, conflicts can arise across diverse ecosystems, species and circumstances. Even if most attention in wildlife-related conflicts has been on mammals, birds are also often at the centre of such conflicts, but conflict research is still not explicitly present in ornithological literature. Examples of such conflicts include those related to birds and agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing and public health interests. Conflicts are often more complex than initial assessments might suggest, involving ecological, economic, cultural, social and political elements. Reflecting the complexity of these issues and their increasing relevance to bird conservation, a British Ornithologists' Union conference was organized in November 2021 that aimed to highlight examples of conflicts that exist between people over birds and their conservation. Building on this conference, we provide here a review of key themes relating to the understanding of conflicts, including the importance of conflict perceptions, the collaboration between multiple disciplines and the different types of knowledge needed to better understand conflicts. We then consider the management of bird conservation conflicts, including the key issues of dealing with uncertainty, the role of technical solutions and the importance of collaboration and building trust, illustrating each theme with real-world examples. Finally, we outline potential future conflicts around bird conservation and how best to address them proactively.     

Which factors limited stitchbird population growth on Mokoia Island?

Reintroduction programmes need to be monitored as a way of gauging potential causes of their success or failure. This, in turn, can be used to improve the likelihood of future translocation success. Since the 1990s, stitchbird (or hihi: Notiomystis cincta) translocations have been intensively monitored, with comparisons between two of these projects (Tiritiri Matangi Island ? a successful introduction, and Mokoia Island ? an unsuccessful introduction) often compared and contrasted as a means of identifying factors important in translocation success for this species. A consistently low adult survival rate on Mokoia Island in conjunction with a study showing a high prevalence of aspergillosis (a fungal disease of the respiratory tract caused by Aspergillus fumigatus) in adult stitchbirds led to this disease being commonly discussed as a major factor responsible for the difference in translocation outcomes. However, A. fumigatus infection rates have never been compared between the two stitchbird populations; thus, population differences in adult survival may have resulted from other factors. One possibility is that survival differences between populations were influenced by differing predation pressures from morepork (or ruru: Ninox novaeseelandiae). Evidence of stitchbird predation by moreporks and the fact that morepork density on Mokoia Island was markedly higher than on Tiritiri Matangi Island provides some support for this hypothesis. It is important that all plausible hypotheses for differences in survival be considered so that we can better evaluate future conservation strategies that target the recovery of this species.     

Is there really no place like home? Movement, site fidelity, and survival probability of translocated and resident turtles

Wildlife translocations, the deliberate movement of wild individuals from one part of their distribution to another, are increasingly being used as a conservation tool. Despite the popularity of translocations as a conservation technique, translocations are often not successful as a result of excessive movement, poor release site fidelity, and low survival. This study compares the movement patterns, site fidelity, and survival probability of resident and hard-released musk turtles (Sternotherus odoratus) in a complex of patchy distributed wetlands. Our results are different from most translocation studies as the majority of translocated turtles had movement (minimum convex polygon area, total distance moved, number of wetlands used, and the number of movement shifts between wetlands), release site fidelity, and wetland fidelity patterns that were similar to resident turtles. In addition, the survival probabilities of resident and translocated turtles were both high. We believe the combination of poor overland movement capabilities and the patchy distribution of wetlands surrounded by a strong boundary matrix of terrestrial habitat, potentially increased the costs of leaving the wetland. The high costs of travelling overland to more distant wetlands may have constrained the translocated turtles dispersal from the release site and increased release site fidelity. Our study suggests that hard-release translocations may be an effective conservation method for highly aquatic species unlikely to leave the wetland and travel long overland distances.     

Detection and Identification of Translocations by Increased Specific Nondisjunction in ASPERGILLUS NIDULANS

A meiotic technique for visual detection of translocations has been applied to ten mitotically identified interchanges, and three new translocations were discovered using this method. Testcrosses between "standard" strains and potential translocation strains-e.g. strains with newly induced mutants or descendants from translocation crosses-are inspected for the frequency of abnormal-looking colonies. In all heterozygous translocation crosses "abnormals" are increased at least tenfold compared to the average control level of 0.15%. Most of these are disomics, and can be recognized by their characteristic phenotypes. Each translocation produces a few specific types, since nondisjunction is increased mainly in the linkage groups involved in the translocation (50-100-fold over control values). Therefore, translocations were not only detected but often tentatively assigned to linkage groups from the analysis of the disomic progeny in crosses. In addition, this technique allows reciprocal and nonreciprocal translocations to be distinguished, since only the latter produce one-third phenotypically abnormal duplication progeny. While results are clearcut in most cases, occasionally problems are encountered, e.g. when morphological mutants segregate in crosses, or when other genetic factors which increase or reduce the frequency of nondisjunction are present in certain strains.     

From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum

Translocation, the intentional movement of living organisms from one area to another is increasingly being used as a conservation tool to overcome barriers to dispersal. A dichotomy exists for conservation‐oriented translocations: on one hand, there are those that release plants or animals into known historic ranges and on the other hand, there are releases outside historic distributions. Misuse of or attempts to redefine established terms and a proliferation of variants of new terms such as assisted colonization, confuse and hamper communication. The aim of this opinion article is to describe and define a conservation translocation spectrum, from species reintroductions to assisted colonization, and beyond, and in so doing provide a standard framework and terminology for discussing translocation options. I suggest that we are moving along this spectrum, away from the dictates of historical species distribution records, toward the inclusion of more risky interventions that will be required to respond to habitat shifts due to anthropogenic impacts. To some extent rapid climate change changes everything, including how we should view introductions versus reintroductions. We need to seriously consider adding other approaches to our conservation toolbox. Assisted colonization will start us along this path, acknowledging as it does the accelerated rate of habitat change and the problems of attempting to preserve dynamic systems. The next step along the conservation translocation spectrum may be for reintroduction biology and restoration ecology to more comprehensively join forces on carefully selected projects to use species introductions to create novel ecosystems through active ecological community construction.     

Complex sex-linked translocation heterozygosity: Its genetics and biological significance

Chromosomal translocations (interchanges and fusions) can alter linkage and random assortment when present in the heterozygous condition. In certain circumstances, this heterozygosity can be maintained through an indefinite number of generations. Sex-linked translocation heterozygosity, in which males are perpetually heterozygous for translocations while females are perpetually homozygous, is disproportionately frequent in social and eusocial arthropod species. This article surveys the reported instances of sex-linked translocation heterozygosity, and reviews recent explanations for the observed correlation with social behaviour.