What motivates ecological restoration?

Ecological restoration projects are motivated by diverse environmental and social reasons. Motivations likely vary between stakeholders or regions, and influence the approach taken to plan, implement, and monitor restoration projects. We surveyed 307 people involved in the restoration of native vegetation across Australia to identify their underlying motivations. We also elicited information on planning, implementation, and monitoring of restoration projects. We found that biodiversity enhancement is the main motivation for undertaking restoration, with biodiversity offsetting, water quality improvements, and social reasons as important secondary motivations. Motivations varied significantly by stakeholder type and region. Restoration projects primarily motivated by ecosystem service provision (e.g. water quality improvements and social reasons) sought less pristine ecological outcomes than projects motivated by biodiversity enhancement or offsetting. Rigorous monitoring designs (e.g. quantitative, repeatable surveys, and use of performance indicators) were rarely used in restoration projects, except for projects motivated by scientific research. Better alignment of different restoration motivations with the planning and monitoring of restoration projects should deliver greater benefits through setting appropriate objectives and evaluating outcomes against these objectives. These improvements will increase the capacity of the restoration practice to meet international biodiversity commitments and communicate restoration outcomes to stakeholders.     

Turquoise is the new green: Restoring and enhancing riparian function in the Anthropocene

Riparian ecosystems are hotspots for ecological restoration globally because of the disproportionately high value and diversity of the ecological functions and services which they support and their high level of vulnerability to anthropogenic pressures, including climate change. Degraded riparian ecosystems are associated with many serious anthropogenic problems including increased river bank erosion, water quality decline, increased flood risk and biodiversity loss. Conventional approaches to riparian restoration, however, are frequently too narrow in focus – spatially, temporally, ecologically and socially – to adequately or equitably address the goals to which they aspire. Climate change, along with the intensification of other human pressures, means that static, historically oriented restoration objectives focused solely on prior ecological composition and structure are unlikely to be defensible, achievable or appropriate in the Anthropocene. Conversely, open‐ended restoration strategies lacking clear objectives and targets entail substantial risks such as significant biodiversity losses, especially of native species. A functional approach to planning and prioritising riparian restoration interventions offers an intermediate alternative that is still framed by measurable targets but allows for greater consideration of broader temporal, spatial and cultural influences. Here, we provide an overview of major riparian functions across multiple scales and identify key drivers of, and threats to, these. We also discuss practical approaches to restoring and promoting riparian functions and highlight some key concerns for the development of policy and management of robust riparian restoration in the Anthropocene.     

Living within dynamic social-ecological freshwater systems: System parameters and the role of ecological engineering

The objective of ecological engineering is to design sustainable ecosystems that integrate human communities and their natural environment for the benefit of both. In this paper, we illustrate how social-ecological modeling can be used as a tool to clarify this objective at a landscape scale for freshwater systems. Coupled social-ecological systems (SESs) are open, dynamic systems subject to both ecological and socioeconomic perturbations. Here we demonstrate the interactive effects of social and technological uncertainties on SES dynamics over time. Additionally, we integrate research on ecosystem stability, social-ecological modeling, and ecological engineering to offer guidance for research at the human-environment interface. Based on a case study of Lake Erie's Sandusky watershed, we use an integrated human-biophysical model to investigate the influence of two parameters on SES dynamics: (1) regional societal preferences that impact watershed management and (2) technological innovation that alters agricultural nutrient efficiency. Our results illustrate ways in which SES dynamics and optimum management strategies depend on societal preferences within the region, indicating a key area of uncertainty for future investigation. As guidance for SES restoration, our model results also illustrate the conditions under which technological change that increases nutrient efficiency on farms can and cannot create a win-win, or increase both human welfare and SES resistance to eutrophication simultaneously. Using these results, we elucidate the value of ecological engineering and offer guidance for assessments of ecological engineering projects using social-ecological modeling.     

山区社会-生态系统转型测度——以三峡典型库区为例

三峡库区是集农村和山区为一体的社会-生态系统,研究其系统内部的相互作用和系统间的耦合转型有利于推动库区高质量的可持续发展。通过构建社会-生态系统耦合转型研究框架,采用地形位指数、耦合协调度模型等方法,以库区腹地草堂溪流域为例,揭示其社会-生态系统转型与否、转型路径的多样性及其驱动机制。结果表明：(1)2000—2020年三峡库区社会-生态系统数量-结构-功能均发生了显著变化,表明库区社会-生态系统发生了转型;(2)库区低地形位社会-生态系统表现为由社会生态型向生态经济型转变,中地形位表现为由生态社会型向生态主导、生态经济为辅转变,高地形位则表现为由生态调节型愈加趋向于生态主导型;(3)农户和政府需求变化是驱动社会-生态系统由传统耕地种植系统向新型经果林种植系统转型的根本因素;(4)研究方法证实对山区具有普适性,构建的研究框架较适合刻画山区社会-生态系统转型路径,在其他地方也能同样适用。     

社会-生态系统视角下沙漠化逆转定量评价——以宁夏盐池县为例

对沙漠化逆转区进行有效管理是沙漠化治理至关重要的环节,研究沙漠化逆转区社会-生态系统的干扰状况可以为沙漠化逆转区的管理提供理论支持。基于MODIS NDVI产品数据,用移动窗口法则计算了不同空间尺度上盐池县社会-生态系统的干扰强度和干扰连通度,并分析了2000—2015年间不同时间段内宁夏盐池县社会-生态系统干扰的空间分布。结果表明:(1)盐池县不同时间段内社会-生态系统干扰的空间分布具有较大差异,2000—2004年强干扰主要集中于盐池县的南部;2004—2008年强干扰在北部、中部均有表现;2008—2012年强干扰分别位于东、中、西3个小区域,并没有集中于一个区域,且北部强干扰区域进一步增强;2012—2015年强干扰的区域主要集中于县域的北部、中西部和西北部。(2)不同空间尺度上社会-生态系统干扰强度和连通度有很大差异,随着移动窗口的增大,不同集群的干扰类型也发生了变化,主要表现为低干扰离散型向低干扰集聚型转变,高干扰集聚型向低干扰离散型转变。(3)总体上看,除了个别区域社会-生态系统干扰强度和连通度较大以外,盐池县大部分地区社会-生态系统受干扰的强度和连通度并不大,沙漠化逆转程度较低,还有待进一步加强沙漠化治理力度。     

Restoring Ecosystems Around the Mediterranean Basin: Beyond the Frontiers of Ecological Science

Based on concrete examples gathered from the Mediterranean region, this article shows why restoration ecology around the Mediterranean Basin must go beyond ecological science to embrace a contrasting local vision which integrates social and political realities. By taking into account the growing gap between the northern and southern/eastern shores of the Mediterranean, we propose the adoption of a double agenda for restoration around the Mediterranean to overcome the fact that restoration objectives are often jeopardized by political decisions initially aimed to promote conservation and lack of available technical means (even when appropriate scientific and political means are secured), and to enhance local actions with lasting impacts on the ecosystems. Our discussion illustrates how current ecological problems have become extremely complex and how the success of restoration projects depends on effective social interactions. Here, the simple juxtaposition of disciplines is no longer sufficient. We suggest going beyond existing ecological and socioeconomic frontiers to fill three main gaps. To fill the “design gap” it is important from the outset to promote a full debate for correct definition of the project's objectives and success indicators. Second, to fill the “implementation gap” ecological restoration science should be linked to information technology and cognition science to develop tools adapted for ecological debate. Third, to fill the “evaluation gap” aesthetic, social, cultural, and economic indicators should be defined during the debate process.     

The business perspective in ecological restoration: issues and challenges

Much of the practice of restoration is conducted by businesses—contractors, consultants, designers, engineers. Restoration businesses interact with a variety of stakeholders to complete projects on time and on budget, and to achieve ecological and business objectives. Our research explores the business perspective in restoration; it is based on data collected from businesses (contractors, consultants, design engineers), agencies, and nongovernmental organizations involved in a Superfund cleanup project in Montana, one of the largest river restoration efforts ever. Our findings highlight several areas restoration businesses must navigate. First, restoration businesses must juggle potentially competing goals, maintaining ecological integrity while achieving profitability objectives. Second, these businesses must manage the risk that arises from variability in the natural environment as well as individuals' risk tolerances. Third, they must navigate the disconnect between “science” and “practice,” including how to best monitor restoration projects. Fourth, they must make decisions about new techniques and innovations. Fifth, on‐the‐ground implementation must acknowledge that personnels' motives and expertise might conflict with original plans. We discuss these findings in relation to relevant scholarly research, offering implications for theory and practice. For example, the business of ecological restoration requires learning over time to be profitable while achieving the desired ecological and social outcomes; restoration businesses leverage monitoring in pursuit of adaptive management and engage “frontline personnel” as important voices in the restoration process. Understanding the business of restoration adds an important perspective in the complex dynamics of social‐ecological systems.     

The emergence of the social‐ecological restoration concept

Many ecosystems in the world are the result of a close interaction between local people and their environment, which are currently recognized as social‐ecological systems (SoES). Natural catastrophes or long‐standing social and political turmoil can degrade these SoES to a point where human societies are no longer autonomous and their supporting ecosystems are highly degraded. Here, we focus on the special case of the restoration of SoES that we call social‐ecological restoration (SoER), which is characterized as a restoration process that cannot avoid simultaneously dealing with ecological and social issues. In practice, SoER is analogous in many ways to the general principles of ecological restoration, but it differs in three key aspects: (1) the first actions may be initially intended for human groups that need to recover minimum living standards; (2) the SoER process would often be part of a healing process for local people where cultural values of ecosystems play an essential role; and (3) there is a strong dependency on external economic inputs, as the people belonging to the SoES may be incapable of reorganizing themselves on their own and supporting ecosystems can no longer self‐recover. Although it might not be desirable or necessary to call all restoration projects with a social component an SoER, the use of this concept may help in defining early restoration targets that may prevent conflicts among users in the long term. From the perspective of other disciplines, SoER would be more appropriately perceived as programs of “social‐ecological recovery” in the long term.     

社会-生态网络方法研究进展

社会-生态系统是由一个或多个社会和生态子系统交互作用形成的复杂的、非线性的、动态耦合系统。理解社会与生态子系统之间的复杂交互关系对于实现有效、可持续的环境治理至关重要。社会-生态网络方法是网络理论在社会-生态交互作用研究中应用与发展的产物,在定量刻画社会-生态系统结构、分析系统动态变化、推动系统适应性治理等方面具有重大的应用潜力。系统梳理了国内外现有的社会-生态网络研究,首先从网络的类型、构建模式、分析方法3个方面介绍社会-生态网络方法,并阐述其在资源管理、社会-生态匹配、社会-生态适应性治理领域中的应用,探讨社会-生态网络方法在研究社会-生态交互作用中的优势和挑战,最后提出未来社会-生态网络研究的重点方向,即社会-生态网络的动态变化过程以及社会-生态网络结构与功能关系。研究旨在深化网络分析可用于描述人—自然关系的认识,为社会-生态系统的网络研究提供实践指导,以期促进社会-生态网络方法在我国社会-生态系统研究中的应用。     

基于适应性循环理论与压力-状态-响应框架的区域社会-生态系统演进研究

21世纪以来都市圈快速扩张对区域社会-生态系统的可持续发展构成威胁,基于动态演进视角的区域社会-生态系统运行机制解析备受关注。以南京都市圈为例,从区域和城市两个尺度,基于适应性循环理论与压力-状态-响应框架解析2000—2019年近20年来都市圈社会-生态系统的交互适应循环阶段,以及每个阶段系统的差异化应激响应机制。研究表明南京都市圈社会-生态系统整体经历了3个适应循环周期,现处于新一轮的适应性循环阶段,系统适应性呈上升趋势,但社会子系统和生态子系统尚未取得协调。都市圈内各城市的社会-生态系统演进类型有所不同,可分为稳定增长型、波动增长型、不均衡发展型和生态危机型四类。未来需要采取差异化的社会-生态系统治理策略,确保都市圈整体优化发展。     

山水林田湖草沙一体化保护和修复工程综合成效评估技术框架

我国实施了诸多生态保护修复工程,取得了显著成效。然而,以往工程多以湿地、森林、草原等单一类型的生态系统为保护修复目标,缺乏区域整体性、系统性考虑。2016年以来,我国开始从完整流域的视角出发,系统考虑生态系统完整性、自然地理单元连续性和社会经济可持续性,实施山水林田湖草沙一体化保护和修复工程。该类工程保护修复目标多样、内容庞杂,因而成效评估面临子项目类型多、空间尺度多、目标维度多、项目实施周期短等诸多挑战。就空间尺度而言,评估对象既要涵盖常规评估中相对较大的、确定的空间范围,也要涵盖具有相对类似生态问题或目标的保护修复单元,以及实际采取措施的子项目;就时间尺度而言,既要考虑工程实施结束时的成效,也要考虑实施结束后的成效动态;就评估内容而言,既要关注社会、生态、经济效益,也要考察工程措施与生态效应之间的关系、不同类型子项目的关联性与协同性、工程的整体性与系统性。研究基于上述背景制定了一个新型评估框架,重点强调基于子项目、保护修复单元以及工程范围三个尺度的指标体系,以及生态、社会、经济、管理四个方面的评估内容。新的评估框架将有助于完善山水林田湖草沙一体化保护和修复工程标准体系,为推进国土空...     

Ecological restoration in the age of apocalypse

Billions of dollars are spent annually on ecological restoration efforts around the world and yet successful attainment of restoration targets still falls short in many regions. Globally, ecosystem restoration is becoming increasingly challenged with changes in climate. Years with extreme climatic events that limit plant establishment, such as severe drought, heatwaves, and floods are projected to increase in frequency. A critical evaluation of current ecological restoration practices and changes to those practices are needed to attain global restoration targets. For plant restoration, many efforts globally focus on planting in a single year following disturbance. The odds of restoration efforts being conducted in a year that is inconducive to plant establishment may be calculated using climatic risk data. We propose a risk-mitigation approach to restoration wherein plantings are conducted across multiple years for projects in a bet-hedging strategy and evaluated through an adaptive management approach.     

山水林田湖草沙生命共同体理念下社会-生态系统时空耦合及模拟预测

社会-生态系统(SES)耦合关系的研究可以更全面地理解人类活动对生态系统的影响,从而制定更合理的环境保护政策。将"山水林田湖草沙生命共同体理念"融入这一关系中,探究社会-生态系统间的时空耦合,可以促进社会-生态系统各要素的可持续利用和管理,并填补现有研究的空缺。赣州市拥有丰富的自然资源属于中国南方丘陵山地典型的生态区域,包涵山水林田湖草沙的各要素。以赣州市为例,分析2005-2020年社会-生态系统综合评估指标的演变规律,旨在深入了解社会-生态系统的复杂性,为其管理和保护提供科学依据。结果表明:(1)社会-生态系统框架中存在着系统间的耦合逻辑。主要体现在社会系统与资源系统的耦合、资源系统与生态系统的耦合、社会系统与生态系统的耦合三个方面。(2)2005-2020年,社会-生态系统综合评估指标在赣州市的中西部和东北部较高,在南部较低。中西部区域社会-生态系统呈现中、高耦合的格局,西部表现为失调。东南部多呈现低耦合格局。(3)2005-2030年基于SES框架的山、田、湖、治理、社会系统综合评估指数均呈现增长的变化趋势。水、林、草、行动者系统综合评估指数呈下降的变化趋势。基于社会-生态系统框架研究各系统间的耦合格局及其评估指数的模拟预测,对于深入理解社会-生态系统的内在机理、制定相关政策和管理措施、预防和应对生态灾害及推动可持续发展具有重要意义。     

Conservation planning and Indigenous governance in Australia's Indigenous Protected Areas

Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) recognize that “country” constitutes land and waters that have enduring cultural, social, and economic linkages for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples that extend over millennia, and which are critical to sustainable Indigenous futures. Within Australia's conservation system, IPAs become part of the National Reserve System (NRS) when Indigenous peoples voluntarily announce their intention to manage “country,” in accordance with their law, custom, and culture, and consistently with national and international conservation guidelines. The NRS requirement is that land is managed “in perpetuity” which highlights a potential tension between with the conservation goals and the voluntary character of IPAs. Ecological restoration in IPAs also raises contested ideas about what is “natural,” the relevant “baseline” for restoration, and what are the objectives to be achieved—ecological or cultural sustainability? Experience from Healthy Country Planning in IPAs indicates that restoration of traditional owner decision‐making, as well as respectful use and valuing community knowledge, is central to the sustainability of outcomes. Ecological restoration is most effectively achieved by restoring governance processes that support Indigenous peoples given the inseparability of cultural, social, economic, and ecological objectives.     

社会-生态综合视角下海岸带生态监管框架与应用——以深圳为例

海岸带作为海洋与陆地两大生态系统的连接与桥梁,既是国民经济、社会发展的重要区域与战略中心,也是生态环境破坏和污染的热点区域。以往针对海岸带区域开展的城市化对生态环境的影响研究,主要利用30 m空间分辨率的Landsat数据分析城市扩张对自然生态系统的侵占,如自然用地减少、景观异质性降低、填海造陆速度变快等,而针对污染产业、人类活动等引起的河口水质污染、水温异常、自然岸线退化等复杂生态环境问题关注不足,难以满足陆海统筹管理、综合防治的需求。因此,研究围绕海岸带面临的主要问题,面向海岸带生态环境综合管制,构建了“问题识别-格局量化-地面调查-生态监管”的综合框架,通过明确生态环境问题,量化社会-生态格局,开展实地调查,制定生态监管目标和策略。通过融合高分影像、兴趣点、道路等多源异构数据并结合地面调查,准确识别影响生态环境的社会-生态格局因子,实现空间显性的生态监管。进一步以深圳为典型案例,探讨该概念框架的应用,将深圳市海岸带划分为了四类共980个生态监管单元,其中包括153个优先保护单元,主要为分布在海岸带东部的林地,7个生态风险较大的核心管控单元,597个几乎分布在海岸带西部的重点管控单...     

基于自然的解决方案在北方防沙带生态屏障建设中的应用

基于自然的解决方案(NbS)通过自然资源高效利用和适应性生态系统管理应对多样化挑战,是国际上普遍认可的生态恢复前沿理念,我国的国家生态屏障建设从本质上是中国特色的NbS,具有系统性、综合性和多尺度特征。NbS的对象、主体、目标以及方案等方面与生态屏障的建设思路上高度契合,相关准则能够为生态屏障建设提供全面的理论思路和实践框架。以北方防沙带生态屏障带为例,从北方防沙带的生态问题入手,深入剖析了NbS与探讨了北方防沙带生态屏障之间的耦合关系,从“格局-过程-尺度”机理、“服务-价值-福祉”路径和“保护-修复-管理”体系角度对NbS实施准则和北方防沙带生态屏障进行了阐述;并结合基于自然解决方案的北方防沙带案例分析,总结了NbS在北方防沙带生态屏障建设中的未来发展趋势和面临的挑战。     

The importance of long‐term social‐ecological research for the future of restoration ecology

In the face of rapid environmental and cultural change, long‐term ecological research (LTER) and social‐ecological research (LTSER) are more important than ever. LTER contributes disproportionately to ecology and policy, evidenced by the greater proportion of LTER in higher impact journals and the disproportionate representation of LTER in reports informing policymaking. Historical evidence has played a significant role in restoration projects and it will continue to guide restoration into the future, but its use is often hampered by lack of information, leading to considerable uncertainties. By facilitating the storage and retrieval of historical information, LTSER will prove valuable for future restoration.     

基于社会总体偏差和同伴效应修正的海洋生态修复偏好研究

公众参与海洋生态修复对我国海洋环境保护与生态安全具有重要意义。利用单边界二分式引导技术评估青岛市居民海洋生态修复偏好,并从内疚和抵抗心理两方面就社会总体偏差与同伴效应对修复偏好的影响机理进行分析,为政府激发公众参与海洋生态修复的积极性提供理论依据与技术指导。结果表明:①青岛市居民平均每年愿意为海洋生态修复捐赠184.386元,考虑属性重要程度结果表明生物数量的改善可显著提高公众海洋生态修复支付意愿,而公众对改善海水水质和海岸环境并未表现出显著差异性偏好。②社会总体偏差和同伴效应均对公众海洋生态修复支付意愿表现出显著正向影响。③社会总体偏差和同伴效应可通过激发受访者的内疚感提高生态修复支付意愿,但也会导致抵抗心理抑制参与积极性;主观规范正向调节社会总体偏差和同伴效应对支付意愿的影响。研究揭示了公众在海洋生态修复中的偏好和竞争性心理对陈述偏好的影响,可为促进公众参与海洋生态修复和提高海洋环境资源价值评估准确性提供参考。     

基于传统生态智慧的江南水网空间韧性机制及实践启示

传统江南水网空间是一种典型的社会—生态系统,人文社会系统和自然生态系统之间的良性互动对于其韧性构建有着重要的积极作用。基于柯林斯等人提出的压力—冲击动态（PPD）模型,以平江府为典型代表,研究传统江南水网空间如何通过生态系统服务的桥梁搭建水网物质空间与人类社区发展之间的联系,从而厘清社会—生态系统在此过程中如何培育、优化和提升江南水网空间韧性。在此基础上,创新性地从生态系统服务供需关系的角度提出社会—生态韧性构建的生态智慧,并倡导以恢复力、适应力与变革力韧性机制培育为导向的、江南地区构建现代社区实践的若干启示,旨在引导江南水网空间实现具有韧性的社会—生态系统转型发展。     

Social perspectives on the use of reference conditions in restoration of fire‐adapted forest landscapes

As approaches to ecological restoration become increasingly large scale and collaborative, there is a need to better understand social aspects of restoration and how they influence land management. In this article, we examine social perspectives that influence the determination of ecological reference conditions in restoration. Our analysis is based on in‐depth interviews with diverse stakeholders involved in collaborative restoration of fire‐adapted forest landscapes. We conducted interviews with 86 respondents from six forest collaboratives that are part of the U.S. Forest Service's Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program. Collaboratives use a variety of approaches to develop reference conditions, including historic, contemporary, and future scenarios. Historical conditions prior to European settlement (nineteenth century or “pre‐settlement” conditions), or prior to more recent grazing, logging, and exclusion of fire, were the predominant type of reference used in all sites. Stakeholders described benefits and limitations of reference conditions. Primary benefits include (1) providing a science‐based framework for bringing stakeholders together around a common vision; (2) gaining social understanding and acceptance of the underlying need for restoration; and (3) serving to neutralize otherwise value‐laden discussions about multiple, sometimes competing, resource objectives. Limitations stem from (1) concerns over social conflict when reference conditions are perceived to contradict other stakeholder values and interests, (2) differing interpretations of reference condition science, (3) inappropriate application or over‐generalization of reference information, and (4) limited relevance of historical references for current and future conditions in some ecosystems. At the same time, collaboratives are adopting innovative strategies to address conceptual and methodological limitations of reference conditions.