Aggregation Formation in the Polyglutamine Diseases: Protection at a Cost?

Mutant protein aggregation is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including the polyglutamine disorders. Although the correlation between aggregation formation and disease pathology originally suggested that the visible inclusions seen in patient tissue might directly contribute to pathology, additional studies failed to confirm this hypothesis. Current opinion in the field of polyglutamine disease research now favors a model in which large inclusions are cytoprotective and smaller oligomers or misfolded monomers underlie pathogenesis. Nonetheless, therapies aimed at reducing or preventing aggregation show promise. This review outlines the debate about the role of aggregation in the polyglutamine diseases as it has unfolded in the literature and concludes with a brief discussion on the manipulation of aggregation formation and clearance mechanisms as a means of therapeutic intervention.     

Systematic Analysis of γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Metabolism and Function in the Social Amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum

While GABA has been suggested to regulate spore encapsulation in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, the metabolic profile and other potential functions of GABA during development remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the homeostasis of GABA metabolism by disrupting genes related to GABA metabolism and signaling. Extracellular levels of GABA are tightly regulated during early development, and GABA is generated by the glutamate decarboxylase, GadB, during growth and in early development. However, overexpression of the prespore-specific homologue, GadA, in the presence of GadB reduces production of extracellular GABA. Perturbation of extracellular GABA levels delays the process of aggregation. Cytosolic GABA is degraded by the GABA transaminase, GabT, in the mitochondria. Disruption of a putative vesicular GABA transporter (vGAT) homologue DdvGAT reduces secreted GABA. We identified the GABA_B receptor-like family member GrlB as the major GABA receptor during early development, and either disruption or overexpression of GrlB delays aggregation. This delay is likely the result of an abolished pre-starvation response and late expression of several “early” developmental genes. Distinct genes are employed for GABA generation during sporulation. During sporulation, GadA alone is required for generating GABA and DdvGAT is likely responsible for GABA secretion. GrlE but not GrlB is the GABA receptor during late development.     

A mutation in the cAMP signaling pathway affects sexual development of Dictyostelium discoideum

Amoebae of cellular slime molds have two developmental modes, asexual fruiting body formation and sexual macrocyst formation. How developmental choice is made is an interesting subject of wide importance. Light exposure and dry conditions are favorable for asexual development, while conditions of darkness and high humidity are so for sexual development. In Dictyostelium discoideum , the latter conditions enhance zygote formation, which determines the fate of surrounding cells for sexual development. Here, a mutant (TMC1) defective in the post-fusion aggregation of cells during sexual development is described. This mutant is also aggregationless in asexual development, and the level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) receptor is reduced. Correspondingly, a series of existing mutants with defects in cAMP signaling pathways showed the same sexual phenotype as TMC1. These results suggest that molecular mechanisms of development are shared by the two alternative developmental modes.     

PKA在盘基网柄菌(Dictyostelium discoideum)多细胞发育中的作用

在盘基网柄菌(Dictyosteliumdiscoideum)多细胞发育中,蛋白激酶A(proteinkinaseA,PKA)发挥多重作用.细胞聚集阶段,PKA调节腺苷酰环化酶的活性,中转cAMP,诱导dut、pdi等一些发育早期的基因表达;参与启动聚集后的细胞分化和形态构成,增强GBF活性,激活前孢子细胞特有基因的表达;它还精密调控前柄细胞特有基因ecmB的表达,准确启动拔顶发育,诱导孢柄和孢子的成熟.子实体形成后,PKA又是维持孢子休眠和保证孢子有效萌发的必需因子.在PKA调控下,盘基网柄菌有条不紊地完成整个发育过程.     

Structural Characterization of Polyglutamine Fibrils by Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy

Protein aggregation via polyglutamine stretches occurs in a number of severe neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease. We have investigated fibrillar aggregates of polyglutamine peptides below, at, and above the toxicity limit of around 37 glutamine residues using solid-state NMR and electron microscopy. Experimental data are consistent with a dry fibril core of at least 70-80 Å in width for all constructs. Solid-state NMR dipolar correlation experiments reveal a largely β-strand character of all samples and point to tight interdigitation of hydrogen-bonded glutamine side chains from different sheets. Two approximately equally frequent populations of glutamine residues with distinct sets of chemical shifts are found, consistent with local backbone dihedral angles compensating for β-strand twist or with two distinct sets of side-chain conformations. Peptides comprising 15 glutamine residues are present as single extended β-strands. Data obtained for longer constructs are most compatible with a superpleated arrangement with individual molecules contributing β-strands to more than one sheet and an antiparallel assembly of strands within β-sheets.     

RasG protein accumulation occurs just prior to amoebae emergence during spore germination in Dictyostelium discoideum

Abstract RasG protein levels in dormant and germinating spores of Dictyostelium discoideum strains JC1 and SG1 were estimated by Western blotting. Ras Glevels were very low in dormant spores and remained low during the lag period, regardless of whether spores were heat activated or treated with autoactivator during the early stages of spore germination. RasG levels increased late during spore swelling just prior to the emergence stage of germination. These data are consistent with a requirement for RasG during vegetative growth.     

利用盘基网柄菌表达可溶性人Fas配体

用PCR扩增从激活的人中性粒细胞中得到的编码可溶性Fas配体胞外区中第141个到第281个氨基酸的cDNA ,将其与hCG-β信号肽片段融合到质粒MB12neo中,随后导入到盘基网柄菌AX3细胞中,得到分泌性表达hFasL的重组菌AX3-H3。为提高shFasL的表达量,对质粒pMB12neo作了改造,得到衍生质粒pMB74。利用质粒pMB74克隆表达shFasL ,得到高通量表达shFasL的重组菌AX3_pLu8。在复杂培养基HL_5C中,重组菌的细胞密度可达(1.5～2 )×10⁷ mL ,AX3-H3及AX3_pLu8分泌的shFasL浓度分别为23.5 μg/L及206μg/L。利用合成培养基SIH培养重组菌AX3-H3及AX3-pLu8,细胞密度均达到(4～5)×10⁷m/L ,shFasL浓度则分别达到111μg/L和420μg/L。     

The secreted proteome profile of developing Dictyostelium discoideum cells

Dictyostelium discoideum is a unicellular eukaryote that, when starved, aggregates to form multicellular structures. In this report, we identified the proteins secreted by developing Dictyostelium cells using MS‐based proteomics. A total of 349 different secreted proteins were identified, indicating that at least 2.6% of the 13 600 predicted proteins in the Dictyostelium genome are secreted. Gene ontology analysis suggests that many of the secreted proteins are involved in protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and proteolysis.     

Responses of Dictyostelium discoideum to Multiple Environmental Stimuli

The movement responses of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum to multiple stimuli were investigated. The responses were found to differ depending on the developmental stage of the organism. A novel response, positive gravitaxis, was found in Dictyostelium slugs but not in amoebae. In the presence of a simultaneous light stimulus, gravitaxis is effective only at low fluence rates. Slugs showed positive thermotaxis in a thermal gradient (0.2 °C cm^?1) and ignored the simultaneous light stimulus at low fluence rates (< 10^?3 W m^?2), while at higher fluence rates they moved toward the light source. With a combination of a thermal gradient and gravity Dictyostelium slugs clearly oriented thermotactically ignoring the gravistimulus.     

Immunological Characterization of cdc2 and wee1 Proteins during the Growth and Differentiation of Dictyostelium discoideum

Two different antibody preparations, raised independently against the conserved EGVPSTAIREISLLKE sequence of the protein kinases encoded by the Schizosaccharomyces pombe cdc2 gene and its species homologs, immunoblotted a Dictyostelium protein of 32 kDa (p32). This polypeptide bound to p13^suc1-agarose beads, suggesting that it represents the Dictyostelium cdc2 and / or cdk2 products. The amounts of p32 detectable in cell free extracts and bound to p13^suc1-agarose were unaltered during the growth of cells synchronized for division. Although there was also essentially no change in the level of p32 during differentiation, the protein from the pseudoplasmodial stage of development did not bind to p13^suc1-agarose, implicating a developmentally regulated modification of the kinase. One of the EGVPSTAIREISLLKE antibodies also recognized a protein of 49 kDa (p49) that increased in amount dramatically during aggregation and then remained at elevated levels throughout the remainder of the differentiation process. This protein was present in low amounts throughout the growth of cells synchronized for division and was not absorbed by p13^suc1-agarose.
A 103 kDa protein (p103) was detected by Western blot analysis using antibodies raised against two different peptides corresponding to sequences in the S. pombe protein kinase p105^wee1, which is a putative upstream negative regulator of p34^cdc2 in fission yeast. The levels of p103 were constant during differentiation and during the growth of cells synchronized for division.     

Aggregation of polyQ‐extended proteins is promoted by interaction with their natural coiled‐coil partners

Polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases are genetically inherited neurodegenerative disorders. They are caused by mutations that result in polyQ expansions of particular proteins. Mutant proteins form intranuclear aggregates, induce cytotoxicity and cause neuronal cell death. Protein interaction data suggest that polyQ regions modulate interactions between coiled‐coil (CC) domains. In the case of the polyQ disease spinocerebellar ataxia type‐1 (SCA1), interacting proteins with CC domains further enhance aggregation and toxicity of mutant ataxin‐1 (ATXN1). Here, we suggest that CC partners interacting with the polyQ region of a mutant protein, increase its aggregation while partners that interact with a different region reduce the formation of aggregates. Computational analysis of genetic screens revealed that CC‐rich proteins are highly enriched among genes that enhance pathogenicity of polyQ proteins, supporting our hypothesis. We therefore suggest that blocking interactions between mutant polyQ proteins and their CC partners might constitute a promising preventive strategy against neurodegeneration.     

Rapid, transient methylation of four proteins in aggregative amoebae of Dictyostelium discoideum as a response to stimulation with cyclic AMP

In Dictyostelium discoideum, extracellular cAMP induces chemotaxis and cell aggregation. Suspensions of cAMP-sensitive cells are shown to respond to a 10(-6) M cAMP-pulse with increased methylation of 4 proteins with app. Mr 110000, 46000, 28000 and 16000. The Mr 110000 and 28000 proteins show a triphasic response with maxima 15, 60 and 150-180 s after stimulation. The responses of the Mr 46000 and 16000 proteins are monophasic, maxima being reached 3 and 15 s after stimulation, respectively. Optimal responses of methylation are observed over 10(-7) - 10(-6) M cAMP. The methylation reaction may be involved in the processing of the chemotactic signal.     

Purification of recombinant human phosphodiesterase 7A expressed in Dictyostelium discoideum

Phosphodiesterase plays an important role in regulating inflammatory pathways and T cell function. The development of phosphodiesterase 7 inhibitor may give better efficacy profile over phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors. However, the recombinant phosphodiesterase 7 is required in large quantity for high-throughput screening of new drugs by in vitro enzymatic assays. In the present study, recombinant human PDE7A1 was expressed in Dictyostelium discoideum under the control of constitutively active actin-15 promoter. The cytosolic localization of the expressed protein was confirmed by immunofluorescence studies. Upto 2 mg of recombinant protein was purified using His-Tag affinity column chromatography followed by ion-exchange Resource Q column purification. The recombinant protein expressed in D. discoideum followed Michaelis–Menten kinetics similar to the protein expressed in mammalian system and showed no major changes in affinity to substrate or inhibitors. Thus, our study clearly demonstrates a robust expression system for successful bulk production of pharmacologically active isoform of human PDE7A1 required for high-throughput assays.     

盘基网柄菌发育期间gp150蛋白与蛋白激酶A相关性的研究

盘基网柄菌进入多细胞发育阶段后,野生型KAx-3细胞的盘基网柄菌蛋白激酶A（DdPKA）活性分别在12,16,20h时显著升高,这一变化趋势与细胞形态学上的分化有关;而突变型AK127细胞（gp150蛋白缺失）的DdPKA活性则一直保持在较高水平,直至22h才缓慢下降。两种细胞类型中24h的DdPKA活性都再一次升高。总体而言,AK127细胞的DdPKA活性要比KAx-3细胞高。这表明AK127细胞可能因缺失了gp150蛋白而导致DdPKA活性调控失去控制。在KAx-3细胞的分化过程中,前柄细胞（prestalk cells,pst）DdPKA的活性在16～18h缓慢上升,但在20h时显著下降;前孢子细胞（prespore cells,psp）中DdPKA的活性在18h时显著下降,但在20h时又迅速恢复,并达到前柄细胞中DdPKA活性的两倍。激光共聚焦结果显示,在KAx-3发育的关键阶段,DdPKA两种亚基的胞内定位并不一致,DdPKA-R亚基在空间位置上更为靠近gp150蛋白,甚至互相重叠。以上结果表明,gp150蛋白可能通过影响DdPKA-R的活性来调控前柄细胞的凋亡和前孢子细胞的分化。     

A dedifferentiation-defective mutant of Dictyostelium that retains the capacity to aggregate in the absence of chemotaxis

During slime mold development, cells acquire the capacity to rapidly recapitulate morphogenesis in roughly a tenth the original time. When developing cells are disaggregated and refed, they completely loss this capacity in a rapid and synchronous step referred to as the “erasure event.” The erasure event sets in motion a program of dedifferentiation during which developmentally acquired functions are lost at different times. In this report, we describe the phenotype of HI4, which is a mutant partially defective in the dedifferentiation program but normal in all aspects of growth, morphogenesis, and rapid recapitulation. HI4 cells progress through the erasure event, losing in a relatively normal fashion (I) the capacity to rapidly recapitulate later stages of morphogenesis, (2) the capacity to release a cAMP signal, and (3) the capacity to respond chemotactically to a cAMP signal. However, erased HI4 cells abnormally retain the capacity to rapidly reaggregate, even though they have lost chemotactic functions. Erased HI4 cells also abnormally retain EDTA-resistant cohesion (contact sites A) and the surface glycoprotein gp80. It appears that erased HI4 cells rapidly reaggregate owing to random collisions followed by tight cell cohesion.     

Galpha3 and protein kinase A represent cross-talking pathways for gene expression in Dictyostelium discoideum

Heterotrimeric G proteins and protein kinase A (PKA) are regulators of development in Dictyostelium discoideum. It has been reported that disruption of the Dictyostelium Galpha3 gene (galpha3-) blocks development and expression of several early development genes, characteristics that are reminiscent of mutants lacking the catalytic subunit of PKA (pkac-). The hypothesis that Galpha3 and PKA signaling pathways may interact to control developmental gene expression was tested by comparing the regulation of seven genes expressed early in development in the wild-type and in galpha3- and pkac- mutants, and comparing PKA activity in the wild-type and in a galpha3- mutant. The expression patterns of six genes were affected similarly by the Galpha3 and PKA mutations, while the expression of only one gene, the cAMP receptor 1 (cAR1), differed between the mutants. PKA activity, measured by phosphorylation of the PKA-specific substrate Kemptide, was higher in galpha3- cells than in wild-type cells, suggesting that Galpha3 normally exerts an inhibitory effect on PKA activity. Although some early development genes appear to require both Galpha3 and PKA for expression, the differing response of cAR1 expression and the inhibitory effect of Galpha3 on PKA activity suggest that Galpha3 and PKA are members of interacting pathways controlling gene expression early in development.     

Polyglutamine repeats and β‐helix structure: Molecular dynamics study

Neurodegenerative diseases are often associated with the formation of highly insoluble aggregates. Despite the efforts devoted to the characterization of these aggregates, their structure remains elusive. Several neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the expansion of CAG repeats, which code for Gln. Among the structural models proposed for the aggregates observed in polyQ-linked diseases, the nanotube beta-helix model proposed by Perutz and colleagues Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002;99:5591-5595 has been influential. In the present study, the stability of this beta-helix model has been investigated by performing molecular dynamics simulations on polyQ fragments of different lengths. The results indicate that models shorter than two full beta-helix turns are unstable and collapse toward irregular structures. On the other hand, longer beta-helix models, containing more than 40 residues, achieve a dynamic regular structure. This finding is in line with the observed threshold of Gln repeats (approximately 40) correlated with the insurgence of the disease. Notably, the structure of the final state of the models longer than 40 residues strictly depends on their size. A compact stable ellipsoidal structure is formed by the model made of two full helical turns (41 residues), whereas water filled tubular structures emerge from simulation on longer polypeptides. These results have been interpreted taking into account the experimental data on polyQ aggregates. A structural interpretation of the literature data has been proposed by assuming that different beta-helical models are involved in the different stages of the aggregation process.     

The nysB sunD double mutant of Dictyostelium discoideum is blocked in the acquisition of non-degradative resistance to the pea phytoalexin pisatin

Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae can be induced to acquire a non-degradative resistance to the pea phytoalexin pisatin. The nysB sunD double mutant is blocked in the acquisition of this resistance. Using parasexual genetics it has been shown that sunD is a recessive mutation linked to nysB on linkage group VI.